Highly Stable Semiconductor Lasers and Sensors for III-V and Silicon Photonic Integrated Circuits

ABSTRACT

Building blocks are provided for on-chip chemical sensors and other highly-compact photonic integrated circuits combining interband or quantum cascade lasers and detectors with passive waveguides and other components integrated on a III-V or silicon. A MWIR or LWIR laser source is evanescently coupled into a passive extended or resonant-cavity waveguide that provides evanescent coupling to a sample gas (or liquid) for spectroscopic chemical sensing. In the case of an ICL, the uppermost layer of this passive waveguide has a relatively high index of refraction that enables it to form the core of the waveguide, while the ambient air, consisting of the sample gas, functions as the top cladding layer. A fraction of the propagating light beam is absorbed by the sample gas if it contains a chemical species having a fingerprint absorption feature within the spectral linewidth of the laser emission.

CROSS-REFERENCE

This application is a Divisional of and claims the benefit of priorityunder 35 U.S.C. § 120 based on U.S. patent application Ser. No.16/509,613 filed on Jul. 12, 2019, which in turn is a Nonprovisional ofand claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119 based on U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/697,419 filed on Jul. 13, 2018.The prior applications and all references cited herein are herebyincorporated by reference into the present disclosure in their entirety.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosure relates to semiconductor lasers, particularly toedge-emitting semiconductor lasers that are more stable and that canoperate with lower drive power than those currently available.

BACKGROUND

Instabilities of the output power and/or spectral characteristics of thelaser source often limit the performance of optical systems used in suchapplications as coherent optical communications, length metrology,LIDAR, and spectroscopy-based chemical sensing. See, e.g., B. Tromborget al., “Stability Analysis for a Semiconductor Laser,” IEEE J. Quant.Electron. 20, 1023 (1984); V. Svedas, “The Significance of Lidar PulseStability in the IR Detection of Hazardous Compounds,” IEEE SensorsJournal 14, 1391 (2014); and L. A. Sterczewski et al., “MultiheterodyneSpectroscopy Using Interband Cascade Lasers,” Opt. Engr. 57, 011014(2018).

A major source of instability is feedback from unwanted secondaryoptical cavities that form due to reflections from one or more surfacesencountered outside the intended primary cavity. The primary cavity ofan edge-emitting diode laser is typically defined by coated or uncoatedcleaved facets of the laser chip, although mirrors formed by distributedBragg reflectors, etched facets, or other means may also be employed.While a parasitic secondary cavity may result from feedback within thechip, it is more often due to feedback from an external optic or othersurface that is encountered after the beam leaves the output facet ofthe laser. See S. Takeda and S. Nakagawa, “Feedback Tolerance of DFBLaser for Silicon Photonics Packaging,” Opt. Expr. 22, 8451 (2014).

Inevitable mechanical and thermal vibrations in a laser device cause thesecondary cavity length to vary, which induces temporal “jitter” of themagnitude and spectral characteristics of the secondary lasing modes.Such instabilities in the lasing mode and output power can, for example,seriously degrade the sensitivity of a spectroscopy-based trace chemicalmeasurement as a result of small variations in the laser signaltransmitted through a sample gas or liquid. Although an optical isolatorcan minimize the feedback from external optical elements, the expense,bulk, and wavelength-specificity of such isolators make them unsuitablefor incorporation into an ultra-compact chemical sensing system.

The cavity for a conventional narrow-ridge edge-emitting semiconductorlaser is most commonly formed by cleaving two high-quality facets thatdefine the two ends of the cavity. Typically, one of the facets (calledthe back facet) is coated for high reflection (HR), while the lightgenerated within the laser is emitted from the other (front, or output)facet. The output facet may be left uncoated, in which case itsreflectivity R is typically 25-40%, or it may be coated to optimizedesired figures of merit. For example, the efficiency is generallymaximized by applying an anti-reflection (AR) coating that reduces R toa few percent or less, whereas the threshold current density can beminimized by applying a coating with reflectivity higher than that of anuncoated facet (but which nonetheless allows some light to betransmitted to provide the laser output). Other means known to the artmay also be employed to form the laser cavity, for example, by etchingrather than cleaving one or both facets, or by processing distributedBragg reflectors (DBRs) to provide reflection at one or both ends of thecavity. See, e.g., M. Ariga, et al., “Low Threshold GaInAsP Lasers withSemiconductor/Air Distributed Bragg Reflector Fabricated by InductivelyCoupled Plasma Etching,” Jpn. J Appl. Phys. 39, 3406 (2000).

When any of those conventional configurations are employed, thestability of the laser output can be compromised by unwanted feedbackfrom optical elements residing outside the laser cavity. In the case ofemission from an end facet, for example, external optical elements mayreflect light back into the cavity to provide unwanted time-variantfeedback.

In other cases, the laser cavity may be integrated on a chip with otheroptical components, and some means such as tapers and/or DBR mirrors maybe employed to define the cavity, while transferring some fraction ofthe laser power into a waveguide for use elsewhere in a photonicintegrated circuit (PIC).

Lasers have been integrated with other optical components to form PICson III-V and silicon chips, as well as other substrate platforms. Whilea laser integrated in a PIC and emitting into a waveguide may experiencelittle or no parasitic feedback from external optical elements, it maynonetheless may receive parasitic feedback from downstream opticalelements residing elsewhere in the PIC.

PICs operating at telecommunications wavelengths in the near infraredhave by now become relatively mature. See C. Zhang and J. E. Bowers,“Silicon photonic terabit/s network-on-chip for datacenterinterconnection,” Optical Fiber Technology 44, 2 (2018)]. On the otherhand, PICs operating at longer wavelengths in the extended shortwaveinfrared (ESWIR, defined here as λ=2-3 μm), midwave infrared (MWIR,defined here as =3-6 μm), and longwave infrared (LWIR, defined here asX=6-14 μm) spectral bands remain in the early stages of development. Seee.g., U.S. Pat. No. 9,612,398 to Vurgaftman et al., entitled“Ultra-Broadband Photonic Integrated Circuit Platform”; see also A.Spott et al., “Heterogeneously Integrated 2.0 μm CW Hybrid SiliconLasers at Room Temperature,” Opt. Lett. 40, 1480 (2015); A. Spott etal., “Quantum Cascade Laser on Silicon,” Optica 3, 545 (2016) (“Spott,Optica 2016”); and Y. Zhang et al., “Thin-Film Antimonide-BasedPhotodetectors Integrated on Si,” IEEE J. Quant. Electron. 54, 4000207(2018). Quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) with InAs quantum wells haverecently been realized by growing the III-V gain material directly on asilicon chip. See H. Nguyen-Van et al., “Quantum Cascade Lasers Grown onSilicon,” Sci. Reports 8, 7206 (2018). There have been severalexperimental demonstrations of midwave infrared (MWIR, 2.5-6 μm) QCLsand interband cascade lasers (ICLs) integrated on silicon. See e.g.,'398 patent, supra; see also Spott, Optica 2016, supra; A. Spott et al.,“Heterogeneously Integrated Distributed Feedback Quantum Cascade Laserson Silicon,” Photonics 3, 35 (2016) (“Spott, Photonics 2016”); A. Spottet al., “Interband Cascade Laser on Silicon,” IEEE Photonics Conference(1-5 Oct. 2017, Orlando Fla.); and A. Spott et al., “Interband CascadeLaser on Silicon,” Optica 5, 996 (2018).

Most of these have been integrated on silicon chips, although thepreliminary performance of such integrated devices has been limited inpart by the challenge of bonding III-V wafer material to silicon andsubsequent processing of the laser ridges from the back. Most often, theoptical mode in the gain region of a silicon-based PIC is “hybrid,” inthat it is shared between the III-V gain material and an underlyingsilicon waveguide. See Spott, Photonics 2016, supra. Tapers of the III-Vmesa material are then introduced at the boundaries between the hybridand silicon waveguide sections, in order to adiabatically couple thegenerated light from one waveguide to the other. However, theperformance of these MWIR PICs has been limited in part by inefficienttransfer (to date) at the tapers of laser power from the “hybrid”III-V/silicon waveguide of the gain region to a passive siliconwaveguide that is suitable for coupling the generated laser beam toother optical elements incorporated into a silicon-based PIC.

At shorter wavelengths in the near infrared (NIR), such tapers haveprovided efficient coupling between the two waveguide sections. See,e.g., C. Zhang, “Low Threshold and High Speed Short Cavity DistributedFeedback Hybrid Silicon Lasers,” Opt. Expr. 22, 10202 (2014). In thoseintegrated lasers, most of the optical mode in the hybrid waveguideresides in the silicon portion of the waveguide rather than the III-Vportion, and so gradual tapering to a silicon waveguide introduces onlya relatively minor perturbation of the mode profile.

However, the tapers employed in the integrated QCL and ICLdemonstrations to date have induced much more reflection (and in somecases loss) than transmission of the laser beam propagating in thehybrid waveguide. This is probably due in part to the requirement for amuch more abrupt evolution of the mode, which in the MWIR devices hasbeen concentrated mostly in the III-V rather than the silicon portion ofthe hybrid waveguide. This mode distribution has been motivated by aconcern that the gain would otherwise not be sufficient to overcome thehigher waveguide loss at the longer wavelength, particularly in the caseof a QCL that characteristically has relatively low material gain.

A number of demonstrations of interband cascade detectors (ICDs) andquantum cascade detectors (QCDs) have been reported in recent years.These have employed absorber and injector quantum well configurationsquite similar to those used in corresponding laser structures that aredesigned for emission near the detector cut-off wavelength in the caseof an ICD, see J. V. Li et al., “Interband Cascade Detectors with RoomTemperature Photovoltaic Operation,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 86, 101102(2005), or near the intersubband resonance wavelength in the case of aQCD, see F. R. Giorgetta, “16.5 μm Quantum Cascade Detector UsingMiniband Transport,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 231111 (2007).

In fact, ICDs have been processed on the same chip with ICLs, see H.Lotfi et al., “Monolithically Integrated Mid-IR Interband Cascade Laserand Photodetector Operating at Room Temperature,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 109,151111 (2016), and QCDs have been processed on the same chip with QCLs,see B. Schwarz et al., “Watt-Level Continuous-Wave Emission from aBifunctional Quantum Cascade Laser/Detector,” ACS Photonics 4, 1225(2017), using the same multi-stage quantum well wafer material in bothcases. ICDs and QCDs are capable of operating at room temperature, whichis generally required for chemical sensing via evanescent coupling to asample gas. It should be noted that neither the laser power nor thedetector absorption per unit length needs to be high, since the opticalbeam generated by the laser can propagate a relatively long distance inthe waveguide in the detector section of the chip, to allowspectroscopic detection based on attenuation by the fingerprintabsorption features. However, the optical loss in the passive waveguidemust be sensitive to absorption by the same gas, rather than beingstrongly dominated by other parasitic loss mechanisms.

SUMMARY

This summary is intended to introduce, in simplified form, a selectionof concepts that are further described in the Detailed Description. Thissummary is not intended to identify key or essential features of theclaimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used as an aid indetermining the scope of the claimed subject matter. Instead, it ismerely presented as a brief overview of the subject matter described andclaimed herein.

The present invention provides a highly compact on-chip chemical sensorcomprising one or more highly stable ICLs or QCLs integrated on a III-Vor silicon chip with other optical components on the same chip. Thiswill be accomplished by coupling the MWIR or LWIR laser source into apassive extended or resonant-cavity waveguide that provides evanescentcoupling to a sample gas (or liquid) for spectroscopic chemical sensing.The uppermost layer of this passive waveguide has a relatively highindex of refraction, enabling it to form the core of the waveguide,while the ambient air, consisting of the sample gas, functions as thetop cladding layer. A fraction of the propagating light beam is absorbedby the sample gas if it contains a chemical species having a fingerprintabsorption feature within the spectral linewidth of the laser emission.

For the on-chip sensor embodiments which incorporate the sensorwaveguide into the laser cavity in accordance with the presentinvention, the measured signal corresponds to the ratio of differentialabsorption induced by the sample gas to the net loss in the cavity,i.e., the sum of internal losses in the various waveguide sections andreflection losses at the two ends of the cavity. It follows that theminimum differential absorption that can be detected depends criticallyon the laser stability, since any jitter or other fluctuation in thelaser operation will wash out a small differential signal. Therefore, itis highly beneficial that the highly stable laser in accordance with thepresent invention, which has no optical interactions at all with theoutside world apart from evanescent coupling to the sample gas, ishighly useful in such on-chip sensors.

In embodiments for which optical output from the laser cavity isrequired, the invention provides a means for isolating the laser(s) tothe maximum degree possible from any interactions with optical elementsexternal to the laser cavity or with other optical elements in a PIC.Rather than coupling a substantial fraction of the laser power out ofthe cavity or elsewhere on the chip at some point during each passthrough the cavity, the cavity is formed by two HR mirrors that areindependent of the light extraction so that only a small, adjustablefraction of the power is extracted during each pass through the cavityvia evanescent coupling to a passive waveguide. While the maximum outputpower and power conversion efficiency may in some cases be reducedsomewhat, the threshold current and threshold drive power are minimizedby the substantial reduction of loss at the output mirror, as well as bythe potential for reducing the cavity length (e.g., to <<1 mm) if themirror loss can be minimized. The laser's increased stability andreduced drive power may be exploited in configurations that emit thebeam from the chip for use in an external system, or as an opticalsource component of a PIC.

The invention also provides a framework for constructing fullyintegrated photonic integrated circuits, and especially for creatingIII-V PICs on the native substrates of interband and quantum cascadelaser structures. A III-V PIC designed in accordance with the inventionwill be much simpler and less expensive to process with high yield thana Si-based PIC that integrates multiple III-V active components. Thenumerous optical elements that may be incorporated into a single III-VPIC include lasers, detectors, passive waveguides, sensing waveguidesthat evanescently couple to an ambient sample gas, and arrayed waveguidegratings (AWGs) for spectral beam combining and separating.

The present invention can be utilized for any one or more of theseconfigurations. For example, the invention may be used to construct anultra-compact chemical sensing system that combines one or more ICL orQCL sources, one or more ICDs or QCDs, passive sensing waveguides, andpassive connecting waveguides, all on the same III-V chip. In someembodiments, the invention can provide a chemical sensing system basedon dual-comb spectroscopy that employs two highly stable ICL frequencycombs integrated on the same chip with a passive sensing waveguide andICD. PICs incorporating various ICL/ICD and QCL/QCD designs can provideon-chip chemical sensors designed for highly stable room-temperature cwoperation at wavelengths from <2.5 μm to >11 μm. In fact, it should bepossible to extend this range to longer wavelengths, since a QCLemitting at a given wavelength may be expected to operate to a somewhathigher temperature when both ends of the laser cavity are defined by HRmirrors, as in many embodiments of the invention, than for aconventional design having an HR mirror at only one end of the cavity.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a block schematic illustrating an exemplary embodiment of ahighly stable laser in accordance with one or more aspects of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 2 is a block schematic illustrating a cross-sectional profile foran interband cascade laser (ICL) with a narrow-ridge waveguide formed byetching through the active stages in accordance with the prior art.

FIG. 3 is a block schematic illustrating a cross-sectional profile foran exemplary ICL embodiment of a highly stable laser in accordance withone or more aspects of the present disclosure, in which part of the topSCL and one sidewall of the narrow ridge are exposed to the ambient toallow evanescent coupling of the lasing mode to a sample gas or liquid.

FIGS. 4A and 4B are block schematics illustrating aspects of anotherexemplary embodiment of a highly stable laser in accordance with one ormore aspects of the present disclosure, where FIG. 4A illustrates anoverall view of such an embodiment and FIG. 4B provides a detailed viewof the boundary between the gain section of the laser cavity and thepassive waveguide section of the laser cavity.

FIGS. 5A and 5B are block schematics illustrating cross sections ofexemplary passive waveguide embodiments that can be processed from afull ICL structure in accordance with one or more aspects of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 6 is a block schematic illustrating an exemplary embodiment of achemical sensor that incorporates a detector waveguide section, anactive gain waveguide section, and a passive waveguide sensing sectioninto the cavity of a highly stable laser in accordance with one or moreaspects of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 7A and 7B are block schematics illustrating aspects of a chipcontaining multiple highly stable laser cavities comprising active gainwaveguide and passive sensing waveguide sections in accordance with oneor more aspects of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 8A and 8B are block schematics illustrating a first- orthird-order distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) mirror that can define oneend of an ICL cavity in a highly stable laser in accordance with one ormore aspects of the present disclosure.

FIG. 9 is a cross-sectional block schematic illustrating aspects of anembodiment of an active waveguide and passive waveguide that can be usedin a sensor incorporating a highly stable laser in accordance with oneor more aspects of the present disclosure.

FIG. 10 is a block schematic illustrating an exemplary embodiment of ahighly stable laser in accordance with the present disclosure, in whichlight is extracted from the laser via an active waveguide in combinationwith a passive waveguide running parallel to the active waveguide oversome portion of the laser cavity and in which the laser light is emittedfrom the chip at the termination of the passive waveguide at a facet.

FIG. 11 is a block schematic illustrating another exemplary embodimentof a highly stable laser in accordance with the present disclosure, inwhich light is extracted from the laser via an active waveguide incombination with a passive waveguide running parallel to the activewaveguide over some portion of the laser cavity and in which both endsof the laser cavity terminate at the same HR-coated facet.

FIGS. 12A-12C are block schematics illustrating an exemplary embodimentof a highly-stable laser on a silicon PIC that is output into a passivewaveguide in accordance with one or more aspects of the presentdisclosure, in which both ends of the laser cavity are terminated by DBRmirrors.

FIGS. 13A and 13B are block schematics illustrating aspects of anexemplary embodiment of a sensor apparatus in which a highly stablelaser, a passive waveguide, and an active waveguide are situated on asingle III-V semiconductor chip.

FIG. 14 is a block schematic illustrating another exemplary embodimentof a sensor apparatus in accordance with one or more aspects of thepresent disclosure, in which the passive waveguide of the sensor regionforms a ring resonator.

FIGS. 15A and 15B are block schematics illustrating aspects of anotherexemplary embodiment of a sensor apparatus in accordance with one ormore aspects of the present disclosure.

FIG. 16 is a block schematic illustrating another exemplary embodimentof a sensor apparatus in accordance with one or more aspects of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 17 is a block schematic illustrating another exemplary embodimentof a sensor apparatus in accordance with one or more aspects of thepresent disclosure in which different groupings of lasers, sensors, anddetectors on the same chip operate at different wavelengths.

FIG. 18 is a block schematic illustrating an exemplary embodiment of asensor apparatus in accordance with one or more aspects of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 19 is a block schematic illustrating an exemplary embodiment of apassive waveguide having a sorbent coating deposited thereon inaccordance with one or more aspects of the present disclosure.

FIG. 20 is a block schematic illustrating an exemplary embodiment of asensor apparatus in accordance with one or more aspects of the presentdisclosure in which the outputs from two ICL frequency combs, only oneof which is attenuated by passing through a passive waveguide thatevanescently couples to a sample gas, are output to the same ICD toprovide dual comb spectroscopy.

FIG. 21 is a block schematic illustrating an exemplary embodiment of asensor apparatus in accordance with one or more aspects of the presentdisclosure, in which two ICL frequency combs are locked by input fromthe same ICL seed laser.

FIG. 22 is a block schematic illustrating an exemplary embodiment of asensor apparatus in accordance with one or more aspects of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 23 is a block schematic illustrating an exemplary embodiment of asensor apparatus in accordance with one or more aspects of the presentdisclosure, in which outputs from an ICL or QCL array are input to anarrayed waveguide grating (AWG) that spectrally combines them for outputinto a single passive waveguide.

FIGS. 24A-24C are block schematics illustrating a further exemplaryembodiment of a sensor apparatus in accordance with one or more aspectsof the present disclosure, in which a highly-stable laser cavityevanescently couples to two different passive waveguides, one of whichis exposed to the sample gas while the other provides a referencesignal.

FIGS. 25A-25B are block schematics illustrating a further exemplaryembodiment of a sensor apparatus in accordance with one or more aspectsof the present disclosure, in which multi-spectral detection is obtainedby positioning multiple in-plane interband or quantum cascade resonantcavity infrared detectors with different resonance wavelengths along asingle multi-spectral detection waveguide.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The aspects and features of the present invention summarized above canbe embodied in various forms. The following description shows, by way ofillustration, combinations and configurations in which the aspects andfeatures can be put into practice. It is understood that the describedaspects, features, and/or embodiments are merely examples, and that oneskilled in the art may utilize other aspects, features, and/orembodiments or make structural and functional modifications withoutdeparting from the scope of the present disclosure.

The present invention provides a highly compact on-chip chemical sensorcomprising one or more highly stable ICLs or QCLs integrated on a III-Vor silicon chip with other optical components on the same chip. Thiswill be accomplished by coupling the MWIR or LWIR laser source into apassive extended or resonant-cavity waveguide that provides evanescentcoupling to a sample gas (or liquid) for spectroscopic chemical sensing.The uppermost layer of this passive waveguide has a relatively highindex of refraction, enabling it to form the core of the waveguide,while the ambient air, consisting of the sample gas, functions as thetop cladding layer. A fraction of the propagating light beam is absorbedby the sample gas if it contains a chemical species having a fingerprintabsorption feature within the spectral linewidth of the laser emission.

For the on-chip sensor embodiments which incorporate the sensorwaveguide into the laser cavity in accordance with the presentinvention, the measured signal corresponds to the ratio of differentialabsorption induced by the sample gas to the net loss in the cavity,i.e., the sum of internal losses in the various waveguide sections andreflection losses at the two ends of the cavity. It follows that theminimum differential absorption that can be detected depends criticallyon the laser stability, since any jitter or other fluctuation in thelaser operation will wash out a small differential signal. Therefore, itis highly beneficial that the highly stable laser in accordance with thepresent invention, which has no optical interactions at all with theoutside world apart from evanescent coupling to the sample gas, ishighly useful in such on-chip sensors.

For embodiments in which light is output from the laser cavity, eitherfor emission from the chip or for use elsewhere in a PIC residing on thechip, high laser stability is accomplished by isolating the laser(s) tothe maximum degree possible from any interactions with optical elementsexternal to the laser cavity or with other optical elements in a PIC.Rather than coupling a substantial fraction of the laser power out ofthe cavity or elsewhere on the chip at some point during each passthrough the cavity, the cavity is formed by two HR mirrors that areindependent of the light extraction so that only a small, adjustablefraction of the power is extracted during each pass through the cavityvia evanescent coupling to a passive waveguide. While the maximum outputpower and power conversion efficiency may in some cases be reducedsomewhat, the threshold current and threshold drive power are minimizedby the substantial reduction of loss at the output mirror, as well as bythe potential for reducing the cavity length (e.g., to <<1 mm) if themirror loss can be minimized. The laser's increased stability andreduced drive power may be exploited in configurations that emit thebeam from the chip for use in an external system, or as an opticalsource component of a PIC.

The invention also provides a framework for constructing fullyintegrated photonic integrated circuits, and especially for creatingIII-V PICs on the native substrates of interband and quantum cascadelaser structures. A III-V PIC designed in accordance with the inventionwill be much simpler and less expensive to process with high yield thana Si-based PIC that integrates multiple III-V active components. Thenumerous optical elements that may be incorporated into a single III-VPIC include lasers, detectors, passive waveguides, sensing waveguidesthat evanescently couple to an ambient sample gas, and arrayed waveguidegratings (AWGs) for spectral beam combining and separating.

The present invention can be utilized for any one or more of theseconfigurations. For example, the invention may be used to construct anultra-compact chemical sensing system that combines one or more ICL orQCL sources, one or more ICDs or QCDs, passive sensing waveguides, andpassive connecting waveguides, all on the same III-V chip. In someembodiments, the invention can provide a chemical sensing system basedon dual-comb spectroscopy that employs two highly stable ICL frequencycombs integrated on the same chip with a passive sensing waveguide andICD. PICs incorporating various ICL/ICD and QCL/QCD designs can provideon-chip chemical sensors designed for highly stable room-temperature cwoperation at wavelengths from <2.5 μm to >11 μm. In fact, it should bepossible to extend this range to longer wavelengths, since a QCLemitting at a given wavelength may be expected to operate to a somewhathigher temperature when both ends of the laser cavity are defined by HRmirrors, as in many embodiments of the invention, than for aconventional design having an HR mirror at only one end of the cavity.

As described in more detail below, the building blocks needed toconstruct an on-chip chemical sensor in accordance with the inventioninclude (1) a highly stable laser source, (2) low-loss passivewaveguides or actively pumped/amplifying sections to enableinterconnections, (3) a passive sensing waveguide with evanescentcoupling to a sample gas or liquid, and (4) an interband or quantumcascade detector. Each of these is described below.

In some embodiments, the top of the waveguide in the sensing region maybe coated with a chemical sorbent with a distinct absorption signaturethat selectively attaches a certain class of chemicals that diffuse intothe sorbent from the sample gas. This can significantly enhance theabsorption associated with a given concentration of molecules in thesample gas. Such a sensor on a single chip may provide spectroscopicsensing over some range of wavelengths between ≈2.5 μm and ≈6 μm when aninterband cascade structure provides the optical sources and detectorson a III-V chip, or over some range of wavelengths between ≈4 μm and ≈12μm when a quantum cascade structure provides the optical sources anddetectors on a III-V chip. When III-V active gain and detector materialsare bonded to a silicon chip to form the PIC, sources and detectorsoperating at any number of MWIR and LWIR wavelengths may in principle becombined on the same chip.

The present invention provides a novel and effective means for stronglysuppressing laser instabilities associated with unintended externalfeedback. By much more effectively isolating the laser cavity on thechip, the invention substantially reduces all interactions with externalelements. Although the enhanced laser stability may sometimes be tradedagainst a reduction of the maximum output power and power conversionefficiency, an additional benefit is the potential for substantiallyreducing the threshold drive power required to operate the laser. Forsome applications these trades may be highly advantageous.

In the case of a III-V PIC, attenuation of the infrared light beampropagating in the passive waveguide is quantified by an ICD or QCDfabricated from the same III-V multi-stage active quantum well structureas the ICL or QCL. Whereas a forward bias is required to produce gainand lasing, an ICD or QCD is typically operated at or near zero bias,although a reverse bias or sub-threshold forward bias may also beapplied.

Some embodiments of the present invention obviate the issue ofinefficient coupling of the active and passive waveguides at the tapers,by replacing them with a more reliable means for coupling betweendifferent waveguide sections. In embodiments of the invention thatemploy a PIC on a III-V chip, no transfers between hybrid and siliconwaveguides are required at all.

These and other features of various embodiments of highly stable lasersand sensors integrated on the same chip are now described with referenceto the FIGURES which are filed concurrently herewith and which form apart of the present disclosure. It will be noted that in the FIGURES andin the description below, elements that appear in more than one FIGUREare denoted by the same reference number, with only the first digitbeing changed to reflect the number of the FIGURE being described. Forexample, a laser cavity of a highly stable laser in accordance with thepresent invention is denoted as “laser cavity 101” when discussed in thecontext of FIG. 1 and as “laser cavity 601” when discussed in thecontext of FIG. 6; similarly, the narrow-ridge laser waveguide isdenoted with reference number 103 in FIG. 1 and with reference number403 in FIG. 4.

A highly stable interband or quantum cascade laser in accordance withthe present invention is formed by creating a laser cavity with veryweak interactions with any optical elements outside the cavity.

The block schematic in FIG. 1 illustrates a simplest embodiment of ahighly stable laser in accordance with the present invention.

As illustrated in FIG. 1, such a highly stable laser includes a lasercavity 101 consisting of an ICL or QCL narrow-ridge waveguide 103bounded by a mirror at each end of the cavity.

In this baseline configuration, the laser experiences no interactions atall with optical elements outside the laser cavity. The laser cavityillustrated in FIG. 1 is defined by two end facets 102 a/102 b that areeach coated with a high-reflectivity (HR) metal such as Au, with adielectric spacer to prevent electrical shorting. In this embodiment,the two end facets are formed by cleaving the wafer from which thecavity is formed. In other embodiments, other highly reflecting endmirrors, such as etched facets with HR coatings or distributed Braggreflectors (DBRs), may be employed at one or both ends of the cavity.While ≈0.5 mm represents a practical limit to the minimum cavity lengththat can be formed with high yield by conventional cleaving methods,shorter cavity lengths are more straightforward if a portion of thewaveguide curves such that the mirrors defining both ends of the cavityare provided by the same HR-coated cleaved facet, as discussed below, orif the cavity is defined by etching one or both facets or by processingDBRs.

A highly stable laser in accordance with the present invention may beinduced to lase in a single spectral mode by first requiring the laserridge to be narrow enough to support lasing in only a single lateralmode. DBRs may then be used at one or both ends of the laser cavity toselect a single longitudinal mode, while in other embodiments, the ridgemay be patterned with a distributed feedback (DFB) grating. Since thereis no opportunity for feedback from an external optical element toinfluence operation of the laser, its stability is likely to bedetermined primarily by the stability of the drive electronics or bythermal fluctuations from the environment (which typically take place ona relatively long time scale). Vibrations should have little effect,since all of the internal lengths are fixed and the reflectors definingthe cavity should generally vibrate in unison.

In some embodiments, the laser ridge may be processed on its nativeIII-V chip using conventional fabrication methods, while in otherembodiments, it may be integrated on a silicon chip by growing the III-Vactive gain material on silicon or by growing on the native III-Vsubstrate and then bonding to silicon as discussed above. Processing onthe native III-V chip rather than silicon is generally morestraightforward and less expensive, and is likely to produce higheryield.

Of course, a laser having no interaction at all with anything outsideits own cavity cannot perform any useful function. However, interactioncan be obtained without introducing any potential for feedback fromexternal optical elements by evanescently coupling some or all of thelaser's ridge waveguide to an ambient sample gas or liquid.

In all of the embodiments of the invention described below, a commonbottom contact on the substrate of the ICL or QCL wafer is employed,although embodiments with both contacts made to the top of the wafer mayalso employ the same inventive aspects. A substantial fraction of theoptical mode resides in the top and bottom n⁻-GaSb separate confinementlayers (SCLs), which exhibit low loss and high refractive index.

The block schematic in FIG. 2 illustrates a typical cross section for aconventional ICL narrow-ridge waveguide that is formed by processing ICLwafer material which is typically grown by molecular beam epitaxy. Inpreferred embodiments, the sidewalls of the ridge waveguide of thenarrow-ridge ICL are etched to below the active stages to preventcurrent spreading in the wafer.

The conventional narrow-ridge waveguide shown in FIG. 2 is formed byprocessing ICL wafer material that includes an n⁺-GaSb substrate 204with an n-InAs/AlSb superlattice bottom clad 205 on an upper surfacethereof, a bottom GaSb separate confinement layer (SCL) 206 on an uppersurface of bottom clad 205, active ICL gain stages 207 on an uppersurface of SCL 206, a top GaSb SCL 208 on an upper surface of the activegain stages, an n-InAs/AlSb superlattice top clad 209 on an uppersurface of top SCL 208, and a thin n⁺-InAs or n⁺-InAsSb top contactlayer 210 on an upper surface of top clad 209. A layer of a dielectric211 such as SiN is deposited on the ridge sidewalls, followed bymetallization on top of the ridge to provide a top electrical contact212. The bottom contact (not shown) is usually made to n⁺-GaSb substrate204. The arrows in FIG. 2 indicate the direction of current flow when aforward bias is applied to produce gain for lasing.

The block schematic in FIG. 3 illustrates the cross section for anexemplary embodiment of an alternative ICL ridge waveguide that ismodified such that part of the top SCL is exposed to ambient to provideevanescent coupling of the lasing mode to a sample gas or liquid. Asillustrated in FIG. 3, such an alternative ICL ridge waveguide, like theconventional waveguide described above with respect to FIG. 2, includesan n⁺-GaSb substrate 304 with an n-InAs/AlSb superlattice bottom clad305 on an upper surface thereof, a bottom GaSb separate confinementlayer (SCL) 306 on an upper surface of bottom clad 305, active ICL gainstages 307 on an upper surface of SCL 306, a top GaSb SCL 308 on anupper surface of the active gain stages 307, an n-InAs/AlSb superlatticetop clad 309 on an upper surface of top SCL 308, and a thin n⁺-InAs orn⁺-InAsSb top contact layer 310 on an upper surface of top clad 309.After the narrow-ridge waveguide has been etched, a dielectric layer 311is deposited on the sidewalls to prevent electrical shorting and metalis deposited to form a top contact 312.

Unlike the conventional waveguide shown in FIG. 2, in the waveguide inaccordance with the embodiment of the present invention illustrated inFIG. 3, one sidewall of the active ICL stages 307, the top SCL 308, andtop clad 309, as well as a portion of bottom SCL 306 are exposed topermit coupling of the lasing mode to an ambient sample gas or liquid.The lasing threshold, slope efficiency, and maximum output power thenprovide information about whether the ambient sample gas contains anytrace chemicals with absorption features at the laser wavelength.

Numerous variations of this exemplary embodiment will be obvious to oneskilled in the art. For example, in some variations, a double ridge maybe formed to provide weak index guiding of the lasing mode, with theinner ridge etched to a depth above the active stages and the outerridge etched to below the active stages. In other cases, ion bombardmentcan optionally be used to prevent current spreading into the outerridge, as is described in U.S. Pat. No. 9,960,571 to Meyer et al.,entitled “Weakly Index-Guided Interband Cascade Lasers with No Grown TopCladding Layer or a Thin Top Cladding Layer.” As noted above, bydepositing the dielectric and top contact metallization on only part ofthe ridge, the rest can remain exposed to ambient. In still other cases,a DFB grating may also be patterned into the ridge, e.g., by etchinginto the III-V material or by depositing Ge and patterning the gratingin the Ge. See '571 patent, supra.

A closely analogous embodiment can be constructed using QCL gain stagesfor the highly stable laser rather than ICL gain stages. For thewell-known case of an InP-based QCL, the substrate is InP, the activestages typically employ strain-compensated InGaAs-InAlAs quantum wells,the top and bottom cladding layers are typically n-InP, and a top and/orbottom InGaAs SCL may optionally be incorporated to maximize overlap ofthe optical mode with the sample gas surrounding the laser. Numerousother variations of the ridge geometry and material constituents will beobvious to one skilled in the art, and all such variations are deemed tobe within the scope of the present disclosure.

QCLs can operate with high performance extending from MWIR wavelengthsof 4 μm or shorter to LWIR wavelengths beyond 10 μm, and all of theembodiments of the invention discussed below that pertain to ICLs and/orICDs apply equally to QCLs and/or QCDs operating at both MWIR and LWIRwavelengths.

The block schematics in FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrate aspects of anexemplary embodiment of a highly stable laser that provides evanescentcoupling of the laser beam propagating in the cavity to a sample gas orliquid.

As seen in FIG. 4A, a highly stable laser in accordance with thisembodiment of the present invention includes a laser cavity 401 that isdivided longitudinally into active and passive sections 413 and 414,respectively, where the active waveguide section includes a narrow-ridgewaveguide 403. At each end of the laser cavity is an HR-coated cleavedfacet 402 a/402 b. In other embodiments, high reflection is provided atboth ends of the laser cavity by DBR mirrors rather than HR-coatedfacets. The top of the passive waveguide is exposed to an ambient toprovide evanescent coupling of the lasing mode to a sample gas orliquid.

FIG. 4B illustrates an exemplary configuration of the boundary betweenthe active ICL or QCL narrow-ridge waveguide section and the passivewaveguide section of a highly stable laser in accordance with thepresent invention. While an additional reflection will occur at theboundary between the active and passive waveguide sections, due tomismatch of the modal profiles in the two sections, generally thisshould not seriously degrade the spectral mode selectivity.

As illustrated in FIG. 4B, such an exemplary waveguide structureincludes the components previously described above with respect to FIG.2, including a bottom SCL 406, ICL (or QCL) active gain stages 407, topSCL 408, top clad 409, and a thin top contact layer (not shown). Theactive narrow-ridge waveguide shown in FIG. 4B further includes adielectric layer 411 on the sidewalls of the active narrow-ridgewaveguide and a top metal contact layer 412 disposed on an upper surfaceof the top contact layer. At the boundary between the active and passivewaveguides, the upper portion of the active waveguide is preferablyHR-coated with a dielectric insulator and metal so that light whichwould otherwise be emitted into the ambient above the passive waveguideis reflected back into the laser cavity.

The block schematics in FIGS. 5A and 5B illustrate two exemplarycross-sections of a low-loss passive waveguide section in a highlystable semiconductor laser in accordance with the present invention.These passive waveguides are formed on the same chip using the same ICLwafer material as is used for the active waveguides, with either anactive or passive waveguide selected by changing the etching and otherprocessing of a given region of the chip.

As can be seen in FIGS. 5A and 5B, in exemplary embodiments, each ofthese passive waveguides includes an n⁺-GaSb substrate 504, ann-InAs/AlSb superlattice bottom clad 505, and a bottom GaSb SCL 506,though other materials (superlattice or bulk materials) can be used asappropriate. The ridge for each of these passive waveguides is formed byetching away the heavily-doped top contacting layer, the top claddinglayer, the top SCL, and the active gain stages, with the etch stoppingnear the top of the bottom SCL 506, to provide an air top clad for thewaveguide. In these embodiments, the ICL waveguide may be redesigned sothat the bottom SCL is thicker than the top SCL, which can be done withonly a modest reduction of the optical confinement factor for the lasingmode in the ICL. In addition, in order to avoid parasitic emission intothe air above the passive waveguide due to the height and modal profiledifferences between the active and passive waveguides at the boundarybetween the active and passive waveguides, the upper portion of theactive waveguide should preferably be HR coated at the interface betweenthe active and passive waveguides.

In the embodiment shown in FIG. 5A, part of the InAs/AlSb superlatticebottom cladding layer 505 is also removed laterally outside the ridge,with the etch that forms the sidewalls of the passive waveguide stoppingnear the top of InAs/AlSb superlattice bottom cladding layer 505.Alternatively, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 5B, the etch that formsthe sidewalls of the passive waveguide stops within the bottom SCL 506.

In both cases, the air top clad of the passive waveguide in accordancewith the present invention is suitable for evanescently coupling theoptical mode propagating in the waveguide to an ambient sample gas. Thebeam propagates in the ridge waveguide formed by the bottom n⁻-GaSb SCL506 as its core, the bottom superlattice cladding layer 505 (along witha portion of bottom SCL in the embodiment of FIG. 5B) as its bottomclad, and air as its top clad. The top of the passive waveguide isexposed to the ambient to provide evanescent coupling of the propagatingbeam to the sample gas or liquid. DFB gratings may be added in theactive waveguide section of the cavity in a manner described below, orspectral mode selectivity may be imposed by processing DBR gratings atone or both ends of the cavity, rather than by terminating both ends ofthe cavity by cleaved facets with HR coatings. In either embodiment, thelayer thicknesses, waveguide widths, and etch depths must be designedsuch that light propagating through the passive waveguide can beoptically confined. In addition, in both embodiments, the tops and sidesof the waveguide are suitable for evanescently coupling the propagatinglight to an ambient sample gas or liquid.

In other cases, a structure analogous to the one shown in FIG. 5A orFIG. 5B can be used to construct a highly stable QCL in which thepassive waveguide section is formed using a thick bottom InGaAs SCL asthe core and the InP lower cladding layer of the laser as the clad.

Numerous variations on the waveguide geometry and material constituentsfor this passive waveguide will be obvious to one skilled in the art. Insome embodiments, the passive waveguide sections can be made relativelylong, e.g., as long as 1 cm or more, to enhance the chemical detectionsensitivity, since in most cases the passive waveguide loss will be lowand absorption by the sample gas weak unless the chemical species ofinterest is present with a high concentration. In some embodiments, thepassive waveguide extending from the gain region to the end of thecavity may follow a straight path. In other embodiments, it may follow awinding path that provides the same total passive waveguide length withgreater compactness on the chip. In some embodiments, the winding orcurved path of the passive waveguide may terminate at a mirror providedby the same HR-coated cleaved facet as the mirror at the other end ofthe cavity. Embodiments in which the mirrors defining both ends of thelaser cavity are provided by termination at the same HR-coated cleavedfacet will be discussed further below.

The spectral characteristics of the beam propagating in the highlystable laser cavity are modified by the presence or absence of achemical species of interest. As a result, a highly stable laser inaccordance with the present invention can be incorporated into a sensorto detect the presence of a chemical species in a sample gas incident onthe sensor, where the presence of the gas is detected through changes inthe threshold current, slope efficiency, and/or power of the highlystable laser operating in the cavity.

In some embodiments, the presence of a chemical species in a sample gascan be detected by monitoring the compliance voltage in the I-Vcharacteristics of the highly stable laser when a constant current isinjected. See M. C. Phillips et al., “Intracavity Sensing via ComplianceVoltage in an External Cavity Quantum Cascade Laser,” Opt. Lett. 37,2664 (2012). When the loss due to absorption of the laser beam by thesample gas increases, the lasing threshold increases and the radiativerecombination rate decreases at a given current injection level abovethreshold. Therefore, a higher voltage must be applied to maintain thesame current. Phillips et al., supra, observed a 0.15 V increase of thecompliance voltage for a QCL emitting near 7.7 μm when the laserwavelength was swept across an absorption line of water vapor. In thatexperiment, the sample gas resided in an external region of the lasercavity (which also provided tuning of the laser wavelength), rather thanbeing evanescently coupled to the beam propagating in a passivewaveguide.

Without an external cavity to tune the wavelength, the present inventioncan sweep across the absorption resonance by current or temperaturetuning, where the dependence of compliance voltage on current iscompared to that observed when the chemical species of interest is notpresent in the sample gas or liquid. In other embodiments, differentlasers on the same chip can be tuned to different DFB or DBR wavelengthsto provide a reference.

The compliance voltage method for monitoring absorption by the samplegas may be combined with either evanescent coupling within the gainregion, as in the case shown in FIG. 1 with an active waveguide crosssection such as that shown in FIG. 3, or when the waveguide in the lasercavity is divided into active and passive sections as shown in FIG. 4A.

For the case of an ICL, the passive waveguide could have a cross sectionsuch as that shown in FIG. 5A or FIG. 5B. Measurement of the compliancevoltage to monitor absorption by the sample gas can be applied either toICLs or, as in the experiment reported by Phillips et al., to QCLs.

A second method for monitoring absorption by the sample gas of a laserbeam propagating within a highly stable laser cavity is to incorporatean additional detector waveguide section into the laser cavity.

This is shown schematically in FIG. 6. Thus, a sensor in accordance withthe embodiment illustrated in FIG. 6 includes a laser cavity 601 havingHR-coated end facets 602 a/602 b, although in other embodiments highreflection is provided at both ends of the laser cavity by DBR mirrorsrather than HR-coated facets. The laser cavity contains a detectorwaveguide section 615 on one side of an active gain waveguide 613, witha passive sensing waveguide 614 section on the other side of the activegain waveguide, where the top surface of the passive waveguide isexposed to the ambient to provide evanescent coupling of the propagatingoptical mode to a sample gas or liquid as in the discussion above. Inother embodiments, the detector waveguide section and the sensingwaveguide section may be positioned on the same side of the active gainwaveguide, rather than on opposite sides. The photocurrent measured bythe detector, which may be an ICD or QCD, depends on the intensity ofthe light propagating in the laser cavity. The lasing wavelength can betuned by varying the operating temperature, by varying the currentflowing through the active gain waveguide, or by other means; in suchcases, the intensity of the light propagating in the laser cavity willdepend on the spectral characteristics of the absorption of the opticalmode due to its evanescent coupling to the sample gas in the sensingwaveguide section. The photocurrent measured by the detector will thenprovide information about the spectral characteristics of the absorptionby the sample gas.

In other embodiments, the detector may also be placed inside the lasercavity when evanescent coupling to the sample gas occurs within theactive gain section, as in the embodiments illustrated in FIG. 1 andFIG. 3. In such cases, the laser cavity includes an active gainwaveguide section and a detector waveguide section, but no separatepassive waveguide section. The active gain waveguide section anddetector waveguide section must be separately contacted, with a gap inbetween to prevent crosstalk between the two sections. In someembodiments, a DBR may be positioned between the gain and detectorsections of the waveguide to reduce the loss of the laser cavity. TheDBR can cause the laser to operate in a single spectral mode, preferablywith the detector waveguide extending beyond its absorption lengthbefore another reflecting element is encountered. Alternatively, if asecond DBR is placed at the other end of the detector waveguide, thedetector can be made to function as a resonant cavity IR detector (RCID)with the same resonance wavelength as the laser. See U.S. Pat. No.10,297,699 to Meyer et al., entitled “In-Plane Resonant-Cavity InfraredPhotodetectors with Fully-Depleted Absorbers.” The opposite end of thelaser cavity can be defined by an additional DBR, or by a broadband HRmirror such as a coated cleaved facet.

As noted above, both ICLs and QCLs may be operated as detectors if zerobias, a reverse bias, or a sub-threshold forward bias is applied ratherthan the above-threshold forward bias needed to produce lasing, with theresulting photocurrent being monitored to quantify the strength of thepropagating optical signal. See Li et al., supra, and Giorgetta et al.(2007), supra.

In the example of an ICL operated under forward bias to produce gain,the electron injector with chirped quantum well thicknesses transferselectrons from the semimetallic interface to the active electron quantumwells, where they recombine with holes in the active hole quantum well.In an ICD, however, electrons that are photoexcited in the activequantum wells of a given stage flow “downhill” through the electroninjector toward the semimetallic interface, where they recombine withphotoexcited holes from the next stage. Thus, whereas a single electroninjected electrically into an N-stage ICL can produce N photons, an ICDrequires N photons to transfer a single electron across all the stagesto provide photocurrent. The cut-off wavelength of the ICD is roughlyequal to the emission wavelength of the ICL, since both are determinedby the bandgap of the active quantum wells and that bandgap does notchange substantially with the application of a forward or reverse bias.Whereas the photocurrent must compete with the noise induced bythermally-generated electrons that traverse the same path, a very highdetectivity is not required because the detector residing inside thelaser cavity experiences a high photon flux.

However, the detector waveguide section of the laser cavity must beshort enough that loss associated with absorption of the lasing photonsdoes not seriously degrade the laser performance. To minimize the loss,it may be advantageous to apply a sub-threshold forward bias to thedetector waveguide section of the cavity, which will lower the loss inthe cavity while still allowing photocurrent to be generated. Theadvantage of lower loss must be weighed against the disadvantage thatthe detector noise current will be higher when a sub-threshold forwardbias is applied. It may, in fact, be beneficial to monitor the detectorresponse as a function of sub-threshold bias current.

The operation of a quantum cascade detector is quite similar, exceptthat intersubband absorption then provides photocurrent across theactive stages when a reverse, zero, or sub-threshold forward bias isapplied to the structure. In the case of a QCD, the maximum absorptionin the detector waveguide section occurs at a wavelength that isnoticeably longer than the same structure's QCL emission wavelength,since before absorption the electrons in thermal equilibrium orquasi-thermal equilibrium reside primarily in a subband that is abouttwo optical phonon energies lower than the subband corresponding to thelower lasing level. The role of the lower subband is to ensure rapiddepopulation of the lower lasing level following stimulated emission. Inspite of this mismatch, the higher subband that contributes toabsorption at the emission wavelength is sufficiently populated at roomtemperature for the absorption coefficient to reach several cm⁻¹,according to simulations by the inventors. In many cases this will besufficient to allow the light intensity propagating in the detectorwaveguide section of the laser cavity to be monitored.

The spectral dependence of the highly stable laser intensity in thepresence of evanescent coupling to a sample gas or liquid can bedetermined by tuning the laser wavelength with current or temperature,by using a sampled grating to increase the tuning range, see S. Kim,“Design and Analysis of Widely Tunable Sampled Grating DFB Laser DiodeIntegrated With Sampled Grating Distributed Bragg Reflector,” IEEE Phot.Tech. Lett. 16, 15 (2004), or by placing multiple lasers with slightlydifferent operating wavelengths (e.g., tuned by varying the DFB or DBRgrating pitch) on the same chip.

The emitter areas of a sensing chip employing any of these embodimentswill be suitable for gold electro-plating above the contactmetallization, to enhance the thermal dissipation for better laser anddetector performance. In the case of intra-cavity evanescent coupling tothe sample gas via an exposed sidewall of the laser ridge, asillustrated in FIG. 3, epitaxial-side-down mounting for furtherenhancement of the thermal dissipation will be possible only if theprocessing provides an air pocket that allows the sample gas access tothe exposed sidewall of the ridge. Since it may be quite challenging toincorporate such an air pocket, it will be more straightforward to applyepitaxial-side-down mounting to the emitter areas of embodiments thatprovide evanescent coupling to the sample gas via a passive waveguidesection of the laser cavity, as in the embodiments shown in FIGS. 4 and6.

The block schematics in FIGS. 7A and 7B illustrate an exemplaryembodiment in which this is accomplished by flip-chip bonding the activegain region of the laser cavity to a heat sink, while leaving thepassive sensing waveguide section hanging over the edge of the heat sinkto provide access to the sample gas. Thus, FIG. 7A shows a single chip716 containing multiple highly stable laser cavities 701 a/701 b, etc,each comprising active gain waveguide and passive sensing waveguidesections 713 and 714, where the chip can be mounted epitaxial-side-downon a patterned heat sink submount 717. After epitaxial-side-downmounting on the patterned submount, as illustrated in FIG. 7B, thepassive sensing waveguide sections of all the laser cavities extend overthe edge of the submount to provide exposure of the passive sensingwaveguide sections to the ambient sample gas.

FIGS. 7A and 7B also illustrate that the active gain waveguide sectionsof multiple lasers on the same chip can be epitaxial-side-down mountedin this manner, as long as they are all at the same end of the chip andthe passive sensing waveguide sections at the other end of the chip canall be exposed over the edge of the mount. It may be morestraightforward to mount multiple lasers on the chip epitaxial sidedown, while another portion of the chip hangs over the edge of thethermal mount to allow access to an ambient sample gas, when both endsof all the laser cavities terminate at the same HR-coated cleaved facet,as will be discussed below.

In some embodiments of the invention, output from the highly-stablelaser is coupled into a passive waveguide, e.g., such as that shown inFIG. 5 for the case of an ICL PIC, for chemical sensing or some otherfunctionality elsewhere on the PIC. In some of these embodiments, themirror at one or both ends of the highly-stable laser cavity is formedby butt-coupling the active and passive waveguides as shown in FIG. 4B.Due to the mismatch of the modal refractive index at the interfacebetween the two waveguide sections, part of the beam is reflected backinto the laser cavity to provide feedback.

As discussed above, a dominant contribution to the instability ofsemiconductor lasers is often unwanted feedback from external opticalelements. This effect can be especially strong in the case of aconventional edge-emitting configuration in which the output facet ofthe cleaved cavity is either AR coated (reflectivity R≤2%) or uncoated(typically R≈25-40%). In both cases, a significant fraction of the lightthat is returned to the facet following reflection by an externalelement is transmitted back into the cavity. Therefore, suppressing thefeedback from external elements can lead to a substantial enhancement ofthe laser stability.

One approach to reducing the external feedback is to increase thereflectivity of the output facet to as high as about 90%. In applyingthis approach as well as the other embodiments discussed below, there isa trade-off between degraded stability when the reflectivity is lowagainst lower maximum output power and efficiency when it is high. Afurther consideration is that the internal laser operation is moreefficient when the mirrors at both ends of the cavity have highreflectivity. The cavity can then be shortened without causing excessivemirror loss, which provides a potential for substantially reducing thethreshold drive power. The most straightforward approach to increasingthe reflectivity at a facet while still allowing output is to deposit amulti-layer Bragg dielectric coating. However, such coatings can beexpensive and challenging to apply, especially at longer wavelengthswhere each layer becomes proportionally thicker.

An alternative approach to increasing the reflectivity of an outputmirror is to use a distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) mirror rather thana cleaved facet to provide reflection at one or both ends of the cavity.

The block schematic in FIG. 8A illustrates an exemplary first- orthird-order DBR mirror 819 that defines one end of a highly stable ICLcavity having the layer structure described above with respect to FIG.2.

In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 8A, the etch for the DBRpreferably stops just above the active ICL gain stages 807, which meansthat current spreading into those stages can minimize loss in the DBRsection of the waveguide that does not have a top contact to providecurrent injection. Whereas the current injected into a conventionaldiode laser spreads a few microns at most, it is known that the currentinjected into an ICL or QCL typically spreads laterally by >100 μm. SeeForouhar et al., “Reliable Mid-Infrared Laterally-CoupledDistributed-Feedback Interband Cascade Lasers,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 105,051110 (2014); see also U.S. Pat. No. 9,960,571, supra. Due tolimitations of the practical etch depth and sidewall angle that can beachieved routinely for a given grating period when GaSb-based laserstructures are processed with reactive ion etching, the processing yieldis likely to be higher if a third-order grating is employed rather thana first-order grating. For the case of an exemplary ICL emitting at 3.5μm, the grating period is then roughly 1.5 μm, and it is preferable thatthe grating comprise >100 periods if high reflectivity is desired. Ananalogous DBR mirror can similarly be patterned into QCL structures. Inthe case of a InP- or GaAs-based QCL emitting at a wavelength beyond 4μm, it may be practical to employ a first-order rather than third-ordergrating, since those material systems are less challenging to etch withsteep sidewall angles, and the period also scales wavelength.

The reflectivity of the DBR mirror can be tuned to a desired value byvarying the grating length (number of periods) or the etch depth, toproduce the desired trade-off between laser stability and laser power.For maximum reflection by a mirror that is not intended for output, asimulation by the inventors of the ICL structure shown in FIG. 8Aindicates that a grating length of at least 100 μm is preferred, whichwith an etch depth of 1.1 μm is projected to produce a reflectivity of90%. Whereas a longer grating would provide higher reflectivity, thereis a limit to how far current injected from the top metal contact willspread into the DBR. Any unpumped outer portion of the DBR that does notreceive very much current will be lossy, although this loss will bemitigated somewhat by self-pumping from the laser light reaching thoseportions of the DBR. Any loss that results will limit the maximumattainable mirror reflectivity. In some embodiments, the etched notchesbetween the DBR teeth can be filled with a dielectric such as SiN, witha metal contact applied to the top of the DBR teeth so that current canbe injected into the active stages of the DBR section of the waveguideto minimize the loss. In other embodiments, a dielectric such as SiN canbe deposited over the entire top of the DBR, so that metal can bedeposited on top of the dielectric for epitaxial-side-down mounting. Inany embodiment for which a dielectric fills the notches in the DBR, thegrating pitch must naturally be adjusted so as to account for thealtered modal refractive index in the DBR section of the waveguide.

When a DBR is used as the output mirror, its reflectivity can beadjusted for optimal trade-off between laser stability and maximum laserpower, as discussed above. The beam from an ICL that includes such a DBRcan be output to a passive waveguide section that begins just beyond thefinal DBR period. This passive waveguide can then be directed elsewhereon the chip for use in a PIC, or to an output facet for emission fromthe chip. In the latter case, feedback from the chip's output facetshould be minimized by depositing an AR coating, and possibly alsotilting the passive waveguide with respect to the output facet. When theIII-V laser is integrated on a silicon PIC platform, it is relativelystraightforward to provide a DBR by pre-patterning it into the siliconbefore the active III-V gain material is bonded and processed. SeeSpott, Photonics 2016, supra.

In the embodiment shown in FIG. 8B, the DBR is formed in a passivewaveguide structure such as that illustrated in FIG. 5, rather than inthe full active waveguide as shown in FIG. 8A. The grating is thenetched into the passive waveguide to a depth stopping within the bottomSCL layer 806 or the bottom cladding layer 805. While there will be agreater mismatch of the mode in the laser's narrow ridge waveguide 803and that in the passive waveguide of the DBR 819, an advantage for someconfigurations is a lower loss due to removal of the active quantumwells. This may be more important in the case of an ICL rather than QCLPIC, since in the absence of a forward bias the active quantum wells inan ICL display higher optical loss.

In other embodiments of the invention, feedback from optical elementsexternal to the laser cavity (residing either external to the chip orelsewhere on the chip if the laser is integrated into a PIC) is reducedto enhance the laser stability by extracting light via evanescentcoupling to a second (passive) waveguide that runs parallel to theprimary active gain waveguide over some section of the laser cavity,rather than the conventional extraction of light at apartially-transmissive end mirror (or alternatively, by using asecond-order diffraction grating to emit light out of the plane).

The block schematic in FIG. 9 shows a cross-section of one embodimentfor the two parallel waveguides at the HR-coated facet. As illustratedin FIG. 9, active gain waveguide 903 includes a bottom SCL section 906a, an insulating film section 911 a and top SCL section 908, and furtherincludes active ICL stages 907, top clad 909, and a top n⁺ contact layer(not shown), whereas passive waveguide 914 includes only a bottom SCLsection 906 b and dielectric insulating layer 911 b on the top and sideswithout a top clad or active gain stages because those were etched awayfrom the passive waveguide during the processing. Both the active andpassive waveguides are coated with a top metal contact layer 912. Thepreferred separation between the two waveguides is 300 nm to 2 μm, andthe space between them is filled with a layer 911 b of a dielectric thathas low loss at the emission wavelength, such as SiN in the case of theICLs. The etch that defines the lateral boundaries of the passivewaveguide may proceed through the entire bottom SCL, as shown in FIG. 9and in FIG. 5A, or it may proceed partway through the bottom SCL asillustrated in FIG. 5B. The entire top of this section of the passivewaveguide is covered by the insulating dielectric 911 b to minimize lossdue to overlap of the optical mode with the top metal 912 that isdeposited to provide a top contact and to enhance the extraction of heatfrom the active laser ridge.

The block schematic in FIG. 10 illustrates another embodiment of ahighly stable laser in accordance with the present invention. In theembodiment illustrated in FIG. 10, light from a laser cavity 1001 isextracted from the highly stable laser via evanescent coupling of theprimary (active) narrow ridge waveguide 1003 to a second (passive)waveguide 1014 that runs parallel to the primary (active) narrow ridgewaveguide 1003 over some portion of the laser cavity. In the illustratedembodiment, the light coupled into the passive waveguide propagates to athird facet 1002 c, which is cleaved orthogonally to the two facets thatdefine opposite ends of the laser cavity, with the light emitted fromthe chip via the third facet.

Once a desired fraction of the beam has been coupled into the passivewaveguide 1014, it angles away from primary active waveguide 1003 and isdirected either toward a facet 1002 c for emission from the chip asoutput 1021 (as shown in the FIGURE), or elsewhere on the chip forfunctionality within a PIC (not shown). In the former case, the facet atwhich light is emitted may be AR coated, and/or the passive waveguidemay intersect the facet at a sufficiently large angle with respect tonormal, as shown in the figure, that reflection at the emission facet isminimized. Reflection at the emission facet 1002 c would reduce theoutput power, and also couple reflected light back into the laser cavity1001.

To provide single-mode operation of the highly stable laser, in someembodiments, a DFB grating may be fabricated in the active waveguide ofthe laser cavity, while in other embodiments, the cavity may be boundedby high-reflectivity DBRs rather than HR-coated facets.

In still other embodiments, the highly stable laser may also beconfigured as an interband cascade laser (ICL) frequency comb. SeeBagheri et al., “Passively mode-locked interband cascade opticalfrequency combs,” Sci. Reports 8, 3322 (2018), which was co-authored bysome of the inventors of the present invention. In such embodiments, thelaser cavity is divided into two separately-contacted sections, whereone section provides gain while the other serves as a saturable absorber(SA). The SA section may be ion bombarded to shorten the carrierlifetime for faster recovery of the absorption condition, and a reversebias may also be applied to further shorten the lifetime. Thatconfiguration can provide passive mode locking, with emission in a pulselength shorter than 1 picosecond.

The block schematic in FIG. 11 illustrates an alternative embodiment ofa highly stable laser in which light is extracted via evanescentcoupling to a second (passive) waveguide 1114 that runs parallel to theprimary (active) narrow ridge waveguide 1103 over some section of thelaser cavity. In this embodiment, the mirrors defining both ends of thelaser cavity are provided by the same HR-coated cleaved facet. Apartfrom the paths followed, the geometries of the active and passivewaveguides may be the same as for the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 10.In embodiments for which the mirrors defining both ends of the lasercavity are provided by the same HR-coated cleaved facet, as in FIG. 11,the bending radius should preferably be large enough that bending lossremains a small fraction of the net waveguide loss. Again, the etch thatdefines the lateral boundaries of the passive waveguide may proceedthrough the entire bottom SCL, or it may proceed partway through thebottom SCL.

The active waveguide that forms the cavity of the highly stable lasermay be straight, and connect two HR-coated cleaved facets, as shown inFIG. 10, or it may be curved such that both end mirrors are provided bythe same HR-coated cleaved facet, as shown in FIG. 11. In both cases,gold electroplating may be applied to the active waveguide to improveheat dissipation, which optionally may be followed byepitaxial-side-down mounting to a substrate or other mount. In addition,in both cases, the output beam propagating in the passive waveguide canbe directed to a facet for emission from the chip as output 1021/1121,as shown in the FIGURES, or it may be directed to some other region of aPIC for on-chip chemical sensing or some other function. Although FIGS.10 and 11 show the output waveguide that evanescently couples to theprimary waveguide of the laser cavity to be a passive waveguide, inother cases, the output waveguide may be an active waveguide thatmaintains the active gain stages, top SCL, top clad, and top contactlayer.

In the case of a highly stable QCL, the loss in the full gain regionwithout a bias is relatively low, so the passive waveguide mayoptionally comprise the entire QCL structure with the same processing,ridge width, and etch depth(s) used to form the narrow ridge of thepassive waveguide as was used to form the narrow ridge of the activewaveguide, except that no dielectric is needed on the sidewalls, nometal is deposited on top for contacting, and no bias is applied. Theloss in the passive QCL waveguide may be reduced further by ionbombardment. See U.S. Pat. No. 9,450,053 to Anish Goyal et al., entitled“Photonic Integrated Circuits Based On Quantum Cascade Structures.”However, in the case of a highly stable ICL, the loss in the outputwaveguide will be quite high if the entire ICL gain structure isretained. Therefore, the active stages should be etched away asdiscussed above to form a low-loss passive waveguide such as those shownin FIG. 5A or FIG. 5B, or the entire ICL structure should be retained,including a top contact which provides a forward bias at a level highenough to reduce the loss to an acceptable level. Alternatively, anoutput waveguide comprising the full QCL or ICL structure can becontacted and biased above threshold to provide further amplification ofthe laser signal.

The strength of coupling between the primary and secondary waveguidesmay be tuned by varying the separation distance between the twowaveguides, the depth of the etch in the region separating them, and/orthe length over which they run in parallel. A broad range of netcoupling strengths can be induced by varying one or more of these designparameters. The net coupling strength will govern the trade-off betweenlaser stability (maximized when the coupling is weak) and maximum outputpower and efficiency (maximized when the coupling is strong). Themaximum coupling is obtained when the region separating the active andpassive waveguides is not etched at all. The inventors have simulatedthe coupling between active and passive waveguides, similar to thoseillustrated in FIGS. 2 and 5A, respectively, corresponding to a typicaldesign for an ICL emitting at a wavelength around 3.5 μm. If bothwaveguides are 5 μm wide and separated by 500 nm, with no etch of theregion separating them, the simulation predicts that a maximum of 27% ofthe light can be transferred from the active to the passive waveguide,which occurs over a coupling length of 19 μm along the longitudinalaxis.

In other embodiments, a highly stable laser may generate gain in ahybrid III-V/silicon waveguide processed on a silicon platform.

The block schematic in FIGS. 12A-12C illustrates an exemplary embodimentof a coupling approach that is projected to transfer the beam moreefficiently while maintaining highly stable laser operation. In theembodiment illustrated in FIG. 12, QCL or ICL gain material isheterogeneously bonded to a pre-processed silicon platform to form alaser cavity with a hybrid narrow-ridge waveguide. See Spott, Optica2016, supra. Preferably, both ends of the laser cavity are bounded byhigh-reflectivity mirrors. In some embodiments, one or bothhigh-reflectivity mirrors may be an HR-coated facet. In otherembodiments, such as that shown in FIG. 12, the III-V ridge extendsbeyond both ends of the laser cavity, which is bounded and defined bytwo DBR mirrors 1222 a and 1222 b which are patterned into the siliconbefore the III-V gain material is bonded thereto, where the DBR mirrorspreferably induce nearly 100% reflectivity in the laser cavity.

The lasing mode resides primarily in a first III-V/silicon hybridwaveguide 1223 a, whose silicon portion is a narrow ridge that waspre-patterned in the silicon platform before the two materials wereheterogeneously bonded. Following the heterogeneous bonding, the narrowsilicon ridge lies underneath the III-V ridge. It is narrower than theIII-V ridge, and extends along the entire laser cavity (and beyond)along a straight path. In addition, a second pre-processed siliconwaveguide 1223 b, which is also narrower than the III-V ridge islaterally separated from the first narrow silicon ridge by some distanceand runs parallel to the first silicon waveguide 1223 a along someportion of the laser cavity, but at some point begins to follow anangular trajectory that finally exits the III-V mesa and the lasercavity. The second silicon waveguide 1223 b extends well beyond the DBRmirror 1222 a at a first end of the gain cavity to provide loss outsidethe gain cavity without inducing any parasitic reflections that can feedlight back into the laser cavity. Once it has completely emerged fromthe III-V mesa, the second silicon waveguide 1223 b is a passivewaveguide that provides the output of light from the integrated QCL orICL in the form of a passive waveguide 1214. The output light can eitherbe emitted from the chip, or directed elsewhere on the chip forfunctionality in a PIC.

This structure also avoids many of the processing challenges that occurwhen tapers are introduced to transfer the mode between active andpassive waveguides, as well as optical losses that can occur at thetapers. Furthermore, highly reflecting DBRs are straightforward topattern in the silicon waveguide before the III-V gain material isbonded.

As in some of the embodiments discussed previously, there will be atrade-off between higher laser stability when the coupling to theemission silicon waveguide is weak, and higher power transferred to thatwaveguide when it is stronger. The coupling strength of the emissionsilicon waveguide to the lasing mode can be controlled by how close itsstraight portion (to the left in FIG. 12A) is to the center of theoptical mode profile that nominally corresponds to the middle of theIII-V active mesa, as well by the length of the straight section. Thisstraight portion precedes its angular section that leads to itsdeparture from the laser cavity.

In some embodiments, silicon waveguide 1223 a may be eliminated, withthe optical mode at the end of the cavity that does not include thesecond silicon waveguide 1223 b (to the right in FIG. 12A) residingalmost entirely in the active III-V gain material which is bounded belowby air (or a dielectric). Note that this and related embodiments mayprovide efficient out-coupling for both QCLs and ICLs that areheterogeneously integrated with silicon.

In some embodiments of the invention, an on-chip chemical sensor isformed by coupling the highly stable laser to a sensing region that isnot incorporated within the laser cavity as in the embodimentsillustrated in FIGS. 4 and 6.

In the subset of embodiments illustrated in FIG. 13A, a portion of thelasing mode is evanescently coupled into a passive waveguide 1314 asdiscussed above with respect to FIG. 10. Some section of the passivewaveguide 1314 has an air top cladding, as in the configurationsillustrated in FIGS. 5A and 5B, so as to provide evanescent coupling toan ambient sample gas or liquid. The other end of the passive waveguidethen couples to a detector waveguide section 1315 that also resides onthe chip. The detector may be processed to have the same narrow ridgeactive waveguide or a similar active waveguide to the narrow ridgewaveguide used in the highly-stable laser cavity. As discussed above andas shown in FIG. 13B, the detector waveguide may optionally be boundedby DBRs that cause it to function as an RCID with increased sensitivitywithin the linewidth of the spectral resonance. Like the narrow ridgewaveguide in the laser cavity, the detector waveguide has a topelectrical contact that is used to detect a photocurrent due to lightpropagating in the detector waveguide when it is operated at zero bias,under a reverse bias, or under a forward bias below that required toreach the lasing threshold.

In the case of a III-v PIC, an interband cascade detector (ICD) orquantum cascade detector (QCD) may be formed from the same activestructure as the ICL or QCL source, as illustrated schematically in FIG.13A and as discussed above regarding the embodiment illustrated in FIG.6. Alternatively, if the PIC resides on a silicon substrate, the III-Vlaser and detector structures bonded to the silicon chip may be the sameor different.

The block schematic in FIG. 13A illustrates an exemplary embodiment of asensor in which a highly stable laser 1301 in accordance with thepresent invention, an extended passive sensing waveguide 1314, and anICD/QCD 1315 all reside on the same III-V chip. In III-V PIC embodimentssuch as that illustrated in FIG. 13A, the passive waveguide 1314 thatprovides sensing may be extended to whatever length optimizes thesensitivity of the response of the ICD/QCD 1315 to the presence of thesample gas or liquid impinging on the sensor. The path followed by thewaveguide in the sensing region can be straight or, as illustrated inthe FIGURE, can be circuitous, so long as the path's minimum curvaturedoes not induce an excessive bending loss. FIG. 13 B illustrates that insome embodiments, the ICD or QCD 1315 is an in-plane resonant cavitydetector that is bounded on both sides by Bragg mirrors 1319 (Meyer etal. '699 patent, supra).

In other embodiments, such as the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 14, thepassive sensing waveguide may take the form of one or more ringresonators 1424 evanescently coupled to the beam propagating in thehighly stable laser cavity 1401.

In such embodiments, the highly stable laser beam propagating in thelaser cavity couples evanescently to a ring resonator 1424 formed by apassive waveguide whose top and/or sides are exposed to the ambientsample gas or liquid. The intensity of the light propagating in the ringis quantified by evanescently coupling the ring resonator to a waveguide1414 that leads to a detector 1415 that absorbs the emission wavelengthof the laser and resonance wavelength of the ring. As described above,the etch that defines the lateral boundaries of the passive waveguidewith respect to the active waveguide may proceed through the entirebottom SCL, as shown in FIG. 5A or it may proceed partway through thebottom SCL as illustrated in FIG. 5B. Naturally, the highly stable laser1401 must emit at least some light at the resonance wavelength of thering resonator, and the detector 1415 must be sensitive to light that isincident at that wavelength.

Evanescent coupling of the laser to the ring resonator(s) may berealized by placing one section of the ring waveguide in close proximityto the laser waveguide, or by shaping the ring as a racetrack thatevanescently couples to the laser cavity over an extended length. Thering resonator 1424 may have any closed-loop shape that assures lowbending loss and a high quality factor Q. Coupling to the ring resonatoror to a coupled mode of two ring resonators of slightly different sizesmay induce the laser to operate in a single-spectral mode, withoutrequiring the formation of a DFB grating or DBR mirrors. Some of thepresent inventors previously evanescently coupled ICLs to ringresonators, which was shown to induce laser emission in a singlespectral mode. See W. W. Bewley et al., “Single-Mode Interband CascadeLasers with Coupled Ring Resonators,” Conference on Lasers andElectro-Optics (2011).

In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 14, the ring also evanescentlycouples to a passive waveguide 1414 that leads to a detector 1415 thatinterrogates the intensity of the optical beam output from the ringresonator. Therefore, measuring the photocurrent flowing in the detectorwhile the resonance wavelength of the ring resonator is varied bytemperature tuning or some other means can provide information about theabsorption spectrum of the sample gas or liquid. Furthermore, multiplering resonators with different resonance wavelengths, along withdetectors associated with each ring resonator, can provide informationover a broader spectral range. If the sample gas contains a chemicalspecies that absorbs light at the ring's resonance wavelength, theoutput from the ring is reduced by an amount related to theconcentration of the absorbing gas species. The net absorption by thegas is enhanced significantly by the many round-trip passes through thehigh-Q ring cavity. The resonance wavelength of the ring may be tuned tocoincide with an absorption feature of a given chemical species byvarying the temperature of the sensing area, which in some embodimentsmay be controlled separately from the temperatures of the source anddetector. If no chemical species in the sample gas absorbs at aresonance wavelength within the range that is scanned when thetemperature is varied, the detected signal should not vary appreciablywith resonance wavelength.

In both of the embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 13 and 14, a passiveconnecting waveguide, which for an ICL PIC consists only of the core andcladding layers as illustrated in FIG. 5A or FIG. 5B, butt-couplesdirectly to the detector waveguide that contains the full ICD or QCDstructure.

If the platform is a III-V PIC, the detector is an ICD or QCD formedfrom the same wafer material as the laser. In other embodiments, theplatform may be formed from a different III-V material if multiple III-Vactive components are bonded to a common silicon PIC platform forcoupling to silicon passive waveguides that form the ring resonator andpassive connecting waveguides. Again, the detector may employ anunpatterned active waveguide, or function as an RCID for highersensitivity if both boundaries of the absorber are bounded by DBRs as inFIG. 13B.

The block schematic in FIG. 15A illustrates an alternative embodiment inwhich the optical mode propagating in a passive waveguide 1514evanescently couples to an adjacent detector waveguide 1515, which isalso shown in greater detail in FIG. 15B. The geometry of the twowaveguides is entirely analogous to the embodiment illustrated in FIGS.9 and 10, which evanescently couples light propagating in the primarywaveguide of a laser cavity to the secondary passive waveguide. In thecase of evanescent coupling of the passive waveguide to a detector, thecoupling strength should be maximized to the extent possible. Withsufficient parallel coupling pathlength, nearly half the light can betransferred to the detector waveguide. In some embodiments, the passivewaveguide that runs parallel to the detector waveguide may be bounded byDBRs that maximize the coupling strength for light at the resonantwavelength.

To use the embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 13-15 for on-chipspectroscopic sensing, the laser drive current and/or the temperature ofthe chip or some portion of the chip may be varied so as to tune thelaser wavelength and/or ring resonance wavelength across a narrowfingerprint absorption feature of a given chemical species that may bepresent in the sample gas. To probe the optical absorption by the samplegas over a broader range of wavelengths, the highly stable laser may beconfigured as a sampled grating laser whose emission wavelength can betuned over the entire spectral bandwidth of the gain material. See Kimet al., supra. A given thermal shift of the refractive index of the gainand/or ring resonator material then induces a larger tuning range thancan be obtained by tuning a single optical mode.

In other embodiments, current may be injected into the emitter waveguideat a level below the lasing threshold, so that it functions as a lightemitting device (LED) or amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) devicewith emission extending over a broader spectral band (much broader inthe case of the LED). In those embodiments, a ring resonator waveguidethat evanescently couples to the sample gas, and/or the resonancewavelength of an RCID formed by placing DBRs at each end of thedetector's absorber waveguide, may filter the broadband output of theemitter to allow the spectral dependence of absorption by the sample gasto be determined on a much finer wavelength scale.

The block schematic in FIG. 16A illustrates an alternative embodiment inwhich a single LED, ASE, or tunable ICL or QCL source 1625 emits into apassive bus waveguide 1614, and then a series of single or coupled ringresonators 1624 a/b/c/d . . . n, each of which is tuned to a differentresonance wavelength, evanescently couples to the same passive buswaveguide. The passive waveguides used for the bus, ring resonators, andconnectors leading to the detectors may be formed from the lower SCL ofthe laser structure as shown in FIGS. 5A and 5B.

Each ring in the series selectively extracts its own resonancewavelength from the bus to allow the spectral dependence of theabsorption to be determined. Each ring also couples into a passivewaveguide 1614/a/b/ . . . , which in turn couples into to acorresponding ICD or QCD 1615 a/b/c/d . . . n, whose absorber waveguidesection may optionally be bound at both ends by DBRs to form an RCID.This is analogous to an embodiment described by the inventors of thepresent invention in U.S. Pat. No. 10,333,011 supra except that the '011patent described an on-chip chemical sensor residing on a siliconplatform, with silicon-based passive bus, ring resonator, and connectingwaveguides, whereas the on-chip sensor illustrated in FIG. 16 insteadincorporates the entire chemical sensing system on a III-V PIC chip.

In other embodiments of the invention, multiple on-chip sensors, eachoperating at a different resonance wavelength, are integrated onto thesame III-V PIC. The block schematic in FIG. 17 illustrates an embodimentin which each in a series of ring resonators 1724 a/b/c . . . (or ringresonator pairs) evanescently couples to its own corresponding highlystable laser or broadband optical source with corresponding narrow-ridgewaveguides 1703 a/b/c . . . , in a manner analogous to thesingle-element sensor described above with respect to FIG. 14. Each ringresonator is exposed to the sample gas and couples to an ICD or QCD 1715a/b/c . . . that measures the beam intensity at the resonance wavelengthof the given sensing element. Although three sensing elements operatingat three different resonance wavelengths λ₁, λ₂, and λ₃ are shown inFIG. 17, any number sensing elements may be integrated on the same chip.

The block schematic in FIG. 18 illustrates an alternative embodiment inwhich multiple extended passive sensing waveguides 1814 a/b/c reside onthe same chip in a manner analogous to the single-element sensorembodiment described above with respect to FIG. 13. In this embodiment,emission from each of an array of highly stable laser cavities 1801a/b/c (or broadband LEDs or ASE sources) is input into a correspondingextended passive waveguide 1814 a/b/c, etc., where the passivewaveguides have air top claddings that allow evanescent coupling to thesample gas. Corresponding ICDs or QCDs 1815 a/b/c that are coupled toeach extended passive sensing waveguide 1814 a/b/c measure the signaltraversing the full length of each such passive waveguide, with eachsensing element operating independently of the others. Again, althoughthree independent sensing elements operating at three differentwavelengths are illustrated in FIG. 18, any number of sensing elementsmay be integrated on the same chip.

In this case, spectroscopic information is obtained by varying the DFBor DBR grating period to tune each individual single-spectral-mode laser1801 a/b/c to a different emission wavelength, or by employing broadbandsources and varying the resonance wavelength of an RCID 1815/a/b/c thatmeasures the intensity of the optical beam transmitted by the extendedpassive sensing waveguide. When multiple sensors operating at differentresonance wavelengths are employed on the same chip, the differentsensors can be tuned to wavelengths on and off the spectral fingerprintfeatures of a given chemical, to several representative wavelengths thatprovide additional spectral details, or to use the same chip fordetecting multiple chemical species. Fine-tuning of the sensing elementresonance wavelengths can be implemented by locally or globallycontrolling the temperature on the chip, or by varying the currentinjected into each given laser source.

The block schematic in FIG. 19 illustrates that in some embodiments, thetop of the passive waveguide in the sensing region can be coated by achemical sorbent 1926 which can adsorb the molecules of certain classesof chemicals, thereby placing them in the immediate vicinity of thepropagating light beam and enhancing their molecular concentration byorders of magnitude. See, e.g., T. H. Stievater et al., “MicromechanicalPhotothermal Spectroscopy of Trace Gases Using Functionalized Polymers,”Opt. Lett. 37, 2328 (2012).

Thus, as shown in FIG. 19, the passive waveguide in such a case caninclude a GaSb substrate 1904, a n-InAs/AlSb superlattice bottom cladlayer 1905, and a bottom GaSb SCL 1906. Sorbent layer 1926 covers all ofthe SCL 1906 and the upper surface of the bottom clad layer 1905, withthe thickness of the sorbent coating preferably matching the verticalextent of the optical mode propagating in the passive waveguide. As inthe other cases described herein, the etch that defines the lateralboundaries of the passive waveguide may proceed through the entirebottom SCL, as shown in FIG. 19 and in FIG. 5A or it may proceed onlypartway through the bottom SCL, as illustrated in FIG. 5B. In addition,although FIG. 19 illustrates a case where the chemical sorbent isdeposited on a passive waveguide processed on an ICL chip, in otherembodiments the sorbent may be deposited on the passive waveguides on aQCL PIC chip, or on passive silicon waveguides.

As noted above, the cavity of a highly stable ICL may be configured withgain and saturable absorber sections so that it is passively mode lockedand produces short pulses that appear as a frequency comb in thespectral domain, as was recently demonstrated in Bagheri et al. supra.Since the comb stability is often a primary factor limiting thedetection sensitivity of dual-comb spectroscopy, it will be advantageousto exploit the greater stability provided by the architecturalembodiments of the present invention.

Thus, in some embodiments, both end mirrors of the highly stablefrequency comb ICL are defined by HR-coated cleaved facets, and thelaser output is obtained via evanescent coupling to a secondary passivewaveguide. This is directly analogous to the configurations illustratedin FIGS. 9, -11, and 15 for highly stable lasers that are not frequencycombs, except that the cavity for the frequency comb laser is dividedinto gain and saturable absorber sections. As in the case of a highlystable non-frequency-comb laser, the laser cavity in a highly stablefrequency-comb laser (ICL or QCL) can also be defined by an etched facetor a DBR mirror at one or both ends of the cavity. The output of such ahighly stable frequency comb laser can be emitted from the chip, asillustrated in FIGS. 10 and 11, or it may be directed via the passivewaveguide to some other region of the chip for functionality in a PIC asin FIGS. 13 and 15. For example, one or more highly stable frequencycomb ICL(s) may be used as the source(s) for an on-chip chemical sensingsystem.

In particular, two highly stable frequency combs may be employed on thesame chip as sources for fully integrated on-chip dual-combspectroscopy. See, e.g., L. A. Sterczewski et al., “Mid-InfraredDual-Comb Spectroscopy with Low Drive-Power On-Chip Sources,” Opt. Lett.44, 2113 (2019). Dual-comb spectroscopy is known to offer high spectralresolution over a broad spectral bandwidth, combined with a very shortacquisition time on the order of milliseconds. See, e.g., G. Villares etal., “Dual-Comb Spectroscopy Based on Quantum-Cascade-Laser FrequencyCombs,” Nature Commun. 5, 6192 (2014). In dual-comb spectroscopy,information about the absorption spectrum of the sample gas is obtainedby using a fast detector to observe the multi-heterodyne beating of twofrequency combs that have slightly different comb spacings (determinedby the cavity length), so as to generate a direct link between theoptical and RF domains. The beam from one of the combs interrogates thesample gas, whereas the other comb functions as a local oscillator whosebeam does not come into contact with the sample gas. Both transmittedbeams then coupled into the same on-chip ICD or QCD, whose output isinput to an RF spectrum analyzer. Since a fast detector is required forrapid sensing measurement speed, it is advantageous that both ICDs andQCDs have displayed 3-dB bandwidths of up to 1 GHz and above. See H.Lotfi et al., “High-Frequency Operation of a Mid-Infrared InterbandCascade System at Room Temperature,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 108, 201101(2016); and F. R. Giorgetta et al., “Quantum Cascade Detectors,” IEEE J.Quant. Electron. 1039 (2009).

For the on-chip dual-comb spectroscopy embodiment illustrated in FIG.20, the laser cavity 2001 a/b of each comb is formed from a straightwaveguide divided into a gain section 2028 a/b and saturable absorbersection 2029 a/b. As illustrated in FIG. 20, in this embodiment, the twoICL frequency comb lasers with slightly different comb spacings aresituated at the same end of the chip to allow both to be mountedepitaxial-side-down, while the extended passive waveguide 2014 a of thesensing region hangs over the edge of the mount to provide contact withthe ambient sample gas. Both ends of each laser cavity are highlyreflective, e.g., from a combination of HR-coated cleaved facets,HR-coated etched facets, and/or DBR mirrors, although this embodimentdoes not allow either frequency comb laser to be bounded on both sidesby HR-coated cleaved facets.

In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 20, each of the frequency comblasers 2001 a/b (described herein as being ICLs, though QCLs can also beused) evanescently couples to a secondary passive waveguide 2014 a/bthat runs parallel to the active waveguide over some section of thelaser cavity, as described above with respect to FIGS. 9 and 10.However, in other embodiments the output from one or both frequency combICLs may couple to its corresponding passive waveguide by butt-couplingthe passive waveguide to a DBR mirror that defines the output end of thelaser cavity. The output from the first highly stable frequency comb ICL2001 a couples to an extended passive sensing waveguide 2014 a, whosetop surface is exposed to ambient to allow evanescent coupling of thepropagating beam to the ambient sample gas. Absorption by the sample gasthen affects the spectral dependence of the light signal reaching thedetector following traversal of the extended passive sensing waveguide.The extended passive sensing waveguide, in turn, couples to the input ofan on-chip ICD 2015. The output from the second highly stable frequencycomb ICL 2001 b (the local oscillator) evanescently couples to a second,much shorter passive waveguide 2014 b that proceeds directly to the sameICD 2015. The signal transmitted by the second passive waveguide is notaffected significantly by exposure to the sample gas, partly due to itsmuch shorter length, and in some embodiments also because the secondpassive waveguide is encapsulated so as to prevent its propagatingoptical mode from coupling to the sample gas.

The two passive waveguides shown in this figure are coupled to the sameICD by a Y-Junction, whose single output passive waveguide butt-couplesto the ICD.

In an alternative embodiment illustrated in FIG. 21, the input passivewaveguides 2114 a/b can evanescently couple to the two sides of an ICDor QCD 2115 rather than coupling to the detector via a Y-junction as inthe embodiment illustrated in FIG. 20. In still other embodiments, thepassive waveguides can be combined by an arrayed waveguide grating (AWG)or some other means known to the art before the combined beams arecoupled to the ICD or QCD. The combined photocurrent signal measured bythe fast ICD due to both transmitted beams is input to an RF spectrumanalyzer that determines the multi-heterodyne beating of the two ICLfrequency combs with slightly different comb spacings.

In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 21, two frequency comb lasers 2101a/b, each having a gain section 2128 a/b and a saturable absorbersection 2129 a/b, and each having a slightly different comb spacing, areused. In this embodiment the cavity for each of the two frequency comblasers 2101 a/b is formed from a waveguide containing curved sections toform a laser cavity terminated at both ends at the same HR-coatedcleaved facet 2102, by analogy to the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 11for a single laser, so that the same HR-coated cleaved facet providesboth end mirrors for each of the two highly stable frequency comb lasers2001 a/b. Both lasers can then reside at one end of the chip, while theextended passive sensing waveguide 2114 a, the shorter passive waveguide2114 b, and the ICD 2115 can reside at the other end, so as to allowboth frequency comb lasers to be mounted epitaxial side down while theextended passive sensing waveguide hangs over the edge of the mount toallow evanescent coupling of its top surface to the ambient sample gas.This configuration has the advantage that the common HR-coated cleavedfacet, which provides both end mirrors for both frequency comb lasers,is generally much easier to process with high yield, using standardprocedures, than an HR-coated etched mirror or a DBR.

As in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 20, in this embodiment, theoutput from the first highly stable frequency comb ICL 2101 a couples toan extended passive waveguide 2114 a that evanescently couples to thesample gas, followed by input to the ICD 2115. The second highly stablefrequency comb ICL 2101 b couples to a passive waveguide 2114 b thatleads directly to the same ICD 2115 without interacting with the samplegas, or its interaction is over a very short path length.

In addition, in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 21, both passivewaveguides 2114 a/b run parallel to an active waveguide in the ICD forsome distance to allow transfer of the input beams to the detectorwaveguide. As in the case of embodiments where a single input waveguidecouples to the detector evanescently, the embodiment that evanescentlycouples two input waveguides has the advantage of greater laserstability, because much lower fractions of the incoming beams arereflected back into the passive waveguides for unwanted feedback intothe two lasers. However, a Y-Junction (as in FIG. 20) or some othermeans known to the art may alternatively be used to couple both beamsinto the same ICD.

In all of the on-chip dual-comb sensing embodiments, such as thoseillustrated in FIGS. 20 and 21, the extended waveguide that providesevanescent coupling to the sample gas can be coated with a chemicalsorbent that concentrates the molecules of interest so as tosubstantially increase the absorption due to those molecules.

In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 21, a DFB ICL seed laser 2101-seedprovides input to both combs, via passive waveguides 2101 c/d, to lockthe frequencies of two frequency combs. The DFB ICL that resides betweenthe two combs operates in a single spectral mode that is preferably nearthe center of the gain spectra of the two ICL frequency comb lasers 2101a/b that reside on each side of the DFB laser 2101-seed. Theincorporation of a seed laser such as that shown in FIG. 21 is optionalfor operation of the on-chip dual-comb spectroscopy system of theinvention.

The block schematic in FIG. 22 illustrates an exemplary PIC embodimentthat employs a DFB ICL seed laser 2201-seed to lock the frequencies oftwo frequency combs. The DFB ICL that resides between the two combsoperates in a single spectral mode that is preferably near the center ofthe gain spectra of the two ICL frequency comb lasers 2001 a/b thatreside on each side of the DFB laser 2201-seed. In the embodimentillustrated in FIG. 22, similar to the manner described above withrespect to FIG. 21, both end mirrors for all three lasers are providedby the same HR-coated cleaved facet, although numerous other geometriesare possible while maintaining the same inventive design aspects, suchas bounding one or both ends of one or more of the laser cavities by DBRor etched mirrors. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 22, two passivewaveguides 2214 a and 2214 b are evanescently coupled to the activewaveguide of the DFB ICL at each end of its cavity. Each of thosepassive waveguides 2114 a/b then couples light from the DFB ICL to eachof the frequency comb ICLs 2001 a/b, which may have the effect oflocking them to the DFB emission wavelength, provided that wavelength issufficiently close to one of the teeth of the frequency combs. The twocomb outputs may either be emitted from the chip, e.g., at one of theend facets, or be evanescently coupled into output waveguides 2214 a/bto be used elsewhere on the chip for functionality in a III-V or siliconPIC.

Other embodiments of III-V PICs designed in accordance with theinvention may provide on-chip spectral beam combining to scale the laserpower that can be output into a single high-quality beam, as illustratedby the block schematic in FIG. 23. In this embodiment, a QCL or ICLarray 2331 of DFB or DBR lasers is patterned to have slightly differentgrating pitches so that each laser emits at a slightly differentwavelength. The outputs from the lasers in the array can be butt-coupledto passive waveguides 2314 a/b/ . . . designed and processed inaccordance with the invention (e.g., as described above with respect toFIG. 5A or FIG. 5B in the case of an ICL), with partially-reflectingDBRs. In other embodiments, the refractive index mismatch at theinterface between the active and passive waveguides, as shown in FIG.4B, defines one end mirror for each laser cavity. The outputs from thevarious array elements emitting at different wavelengths may then beinput to an AWG 2332 for spectral beam combining into a single outputwaveguide 2314-out. The array output with much higher power than eachindividual array element is then emitted from the chip at a singlewaveguide aperture 2333. Processing protocols for mounting such an arrayepitaxial side down are well known to the art.

In some embodiments, the same highly-stable laser cavity evanescentlycouples to two different passive waveguides. In the embodiment shown inFIG. 24A, the two passive waveguides 2414 a/b run in parallel to thelaser cavity 2401 for evanescent coupling on the same side of the laserridge but at opposite ends of the cavity. Alternatively, for theembodiment illustrated in FIG. 24B the two passive waveguides couple toopposite sides of the laser ridge at the same end of the cavity, whilein the embodiment shown in FIG. 24C the two passive waveguides couple toopposite sides of the laser ridge at opposite ends of the cavity.

In all of these embodiments, both passive waveguides have the sameextended length with the same shape, and at the opposite end both coupleto ICDs or QCDs integrated on the chip. However, one extended passivewaveguide is exposed to the sample gas while the other serves as areference because it is not exposed. For example, exposure of thereference extended waveguide to the sample gas can be prevented byencapsulating that portion of the chip in a hermetic dome that thesample gas does not penetrate.

All of these embodiments have the advantage of providing a referencesignal that propagates through the same length and shape of waveguidefor detection by an identical ICD or QCD that nominally operates at thesame temperature due to its close proximity on the chip, but which isnot attenuated by absorption associated with trace chemicals in thesample gas. The extended waveguide 2414 a that is exposed to the samplegas may be covered with a sorbent to enhance the concentration of tracechemicals of interest. In that case, the signal detected for theextended waveguide 2414 a coated with the sorbent may be compared to thesignal for a reference extended waveguide 2414 b that is not coated withthe sorbent.

In some embodiments, multi-spectral detection is obtained by positioningmultiple in-plane interband or quantum cascade resonant cavity infrareddetectors with different resonance wavelengths along a singlemulti-spectral detection waveguide.

FIG. 25A illustrates an embodiment of a chemical sensing PIC thatintegrates on the same III-V or silicon chip a highly stable lasercavity 2501, an extended passive waveguide 2514 whose top surface isexposed to a sample gas, and a series of multi-wavelength RCIDs 2515a/b/ . . . that are positioned in series along the same multi-spectraldetection waveguide 2534, which receives the optical signal transmittedby the extended passive waveguide 2514. A DBR mirror 2519 is positionedon each side of each detector in the multi-spectral series of detectors,with each set of two such DBR mirrors that bound a given RCID is formedby etching gratings with a different pitch than the gratings that formthe two DBRs that bound any other RCID in the series, so that each RCIDin the series operates at a different resonance wavelength. Preferably,each RCID, consisting of the detector 2515 and DBR mirrors 2519,butt-couples to the next, with no space between the grating for one DBRwith a given grating pitch and the grating for the next DBR with adifferent grating pitch.

In the case of an ICD RCID, it may be preferable to etch the gratinginto the passive waveguide structure, as illustrated in FIG. 8B, ratherthan into the full waveguide structure as illustrated in FIG. 8A. Thisis because optical loss due to absorption in the active quantum wellscan degrade the quality factor of the RCID cavities if the DBRs areformed by etching the grating into the full active structure. Theabsorption loss in the active quantum wells is of less concern for a QCDRCID, particularly if the DBRs are ion bombarded to trap free carriersand further reduce the loss as discussed above.

The photocurrent flowing in any given RCID is sensitive primarily toincoming light having a wavelength falling within one linewidth of theresonance wavelength of that RCID, whereas most of the incoming opticalsignal that does not fall within the narrow spectral linewidth of thatRCID is transmitted to the next RCID, since the DBR mirrors do notprovide high reflection of any non-resonance wavelength, and thelongitudinal length L of the absorber in each RCID is short enough thatonly a small fraction of the beam is absorbed during a single passthrough the absorber. However, most of the spectral component of theincoming optical signal that falls within the narrow spectral linewidthof the given RCID is absorbed, since the quality factor Q of the cavitydefined by the two DBRs on each side of the RCID, in combination withthe longitudinal pathlength L of the absorber for that RCID, providehigh absorption quantum efficiency following multiple longitudinalpasses of the selected spectral portion of the beam through the RCID. Insome embodiments, such as that illustrated in FIG. 25, themulti-spectral detection waveguide 2534 terminates at an HR-coated facet2502, or some other broadband mirror that provides a second pass of theoptical signal through the multi-spectral series of RCIDs.

Each RCID in the series has a separate top contact that allows thephotocurrent generated by the portion of the incoming signal fallingwithin the selected spectral bandwidth of the given RCID to be measured.In some embodiments of a III-V PIC, the circuit is completed by a commonground contact to the substrate side of the chip, which also provides acommon ground contact for all the interband or quantum cascade opticalemitters on the chip. In the case of a silicon PIC, both contacts to theinterband or quantum cascade RCID must be processed on the top side ofthe chip.

By tuning each RCID to a different resonance wavelength, via the gratingpitch of the DBRs surrounding that RCID, the intensity of the incomingsignal can be measured as a function of wavelength. Combining theinformation received from the different RCIDs in the multi-spectralseries then provides a spectral characterization of the incoming signal.The spectral bandwidths of the different RCIDs in the multi-spectralseries may be designed to nearly overlap, so that a continuous spectrumcan be obtained, or the resonances for the different RCIDs may beselected to detect a pre-determined set of non-contiguous wavelengths ofinterest.

If the chemical sensing PIC employs an source with broad spectralbandwidth, such as an infrared light emitting diode (LED) such as theinterband cascade LED (see C. S. Kim et al., Opt. Engr. 57, 011002(2018), “Improved Mid-Infrared Interband Cascade Light EmittingDevices”), an infrared amplified spontaneous emission device (e.g., M.C. Zheng et al., Opt. Expr. 23, 2713, “High power spiral cavity quantumcascade superluminescent emitter”), or simply an ICL or QCL, themulti-spectral series of RCIDs can be used as the primary means fordetermining the spectrum for optical transmission through the extendedpassive waveguide 2514. This approach may sometimes be morestraightforward to implement than the series of ring resonators that isemployed to provide spectral information for the embodiment illustratedin FIG. 16. An advantage of employing a silicon PIC to implement themulti-spectral series of detectors is that DBRs with low loss and high Qmay be more straightforward to process with high yield (Spott, Photonics2016 supra) than is possible with DBRs processed on a III-V PIC.

More generally, the multi-spectral series of RCIDs may be used toprovide multi-spectral detection of any signal propagating in anincoming passive waveguide. For example, it may be used formulti-spectral or hyper-spectral detection or imaging that on a PIC thatdoes not integrate optical sources on the same chip.

Numerous variations on the inventive embodiments described above arepossible. For example, FIGS. 3, 5, and 19 illustrate specific passiveand active waveguide configurations that provide evanescent coupling ofthe beam propagating in the waveguide to an ambient sample gas. Avariety of alternative designs for both the semiconductor layeringdesign and the passive waveguide profile will be obvious to one skilledin the art. For example, starting with a QCL III-V epitaxial structure apassive waveguide may be constructed with a bottom InGaAs SCL as thecore and the bottom InP cladding layer as the bottom clad of the passivewaveguide. The InGaAs bottom SCL thickness should be designed foroptimal operation of both the highly stable QCL and the passivewaveguide. It was mentioned above that ion bombardment of the passive oractive waveguide on a QCL chip may deplete the free electrons so as tofurther reduce the waveguide loss. QCL chips designed for LWIR operationcan be used to expand the spectral coverage of III-V PICs incorporatingQCLs and QCDs to on-chip chemical sensors probing wavelengths beyond 10μm.

When the laser output is emitted from the chip (e.g., as in theembodiments illustrated in FIGS. 10 and 11), the advantageous enhancedstability that is realized when only a small fraction of the power iscoupled out of the cavity per pass may be applied to diode lasersoperating on any III-V substrate and emitting at any wavelength. Thisincludes near-IR, visible, and ultraviolet diode lasers that may resideon InP, GaAs, GaN, or other III-V substrates, for which passivewaveguides may be designed for compatibility with the given laserstructure. While a similar enhancement of the laser stability may beinduced by applying an HR coating to the output facet defining one endof the laser cavity, the invention's evanescently-coupled output fromthe side of the laser cavity provides simpler processing as well as muchgreater control over the out-coupling fraction per pass (via thedouble-waveguide profile, the spacer width between the two waveguides,and the distance over which the two waveguides propagate parallel to oneanother).

In some embodiments, both ends of the highly stable laser cavity arebounded by HR-coated facets that do not provide any significant spectralselectivity. The two mirrors at opposite ends of the laser cavity may beformed by two facets cleaved on opposite ends of a chip, as illustratedin FIG. 10, by two mirrors located on the same cleaved facet asillustrated in FIG. 11, or by etching an HR-coated facet to form atleast one of the mirrors. In the embodiments of FIGS. 10 and 11, somefraction of the light is evanescently coupled to a second waveguide thatis passive, although in other embodiments the second active waveguidemay be active in order to minimize loss (if biased below the gainthreshold) or provide further amplification of the optical signal (ifbiased above the gain threshold).

In other embodiments, a DBR mirror defines at least one end of thehighly stable laser. Some fraction of the light can then couple into apassive or active output waveguide that emerges from the opposite end ofthe partially-reflecting DBR mirror, as illustrated in FIG. 8. Bothout-coupling via evanescent coupling to a passive waveguide andout-coupling at a DBR mirror provide flexibility in the trade betweenlaser stability and out-coupling efficiency. In the case of evanescentout-coupling to a second waveguide, the fraction of light in the lasercavity that is out-coupled per pass depends on the coupling strengthbetween the two waveguides, which may be varied through adjustment oftheir separation distance and waveguide profiles. In the alternativecase of out-coupling from a partially-reflecting DBR mirror that definesone end of the laser cavity, the etch depth and number of periods may betuned to adjust the mirror reflectivity. It may be more straightforwardto realize a broad range of out-coupling efficiencies when the DBRmirror approach is employed. In terms of positioning it is also moreflexible to define the laser cavity by DBR mirrors, since the laser canthen be placed anywhere within a PIC, whereas defining the cavity withone or more HR-coated cleaved facets requires that the laser beproximate to one or more boundaries of the chip.

In many embodiments, such as when stable output into a single spectralmode is desired, these two approaches to out-coupling may be usedinterchangeably. Which is preferable for use in a given PIC may dependin part on whether it is more straightforward to process a DBR or adouble waveguide with separation close enough to provide substantialevanescent coupling. In the latter case, the laser cavity must alsoincorporate a DFB grating or other means of longitudinal mode selectionif lasing in a single spectral mode is required. Which architecture isless challenging to fabricate with higher yield will depend in part onthe material constituents, and also on the profiles and dimensions ofthe waveguides. However, in cases where lasing should not occur in asingle spectral mode, e.g., when the laser is a frequency comb, a DBRmirror cannot be used to define either end of the laser cavity.

In some embodiments, the laser source emits in a narrow spectrallinewidth due to the implementation of a DFB grating. One or both endsof the cavity are then defined by DBR mirrors or some other means knownto the art. In some embodiments, the narrow-linewidth emissionwavelength may be tuned over some limited bandwidth by current,temperature, or some other means such as a sampled grating. The spectralbandwidth can be extended by disposing multiple laser sources on thesame chip, which are coupled to multiple sensing regions, or by couplinga single laser source to multiple resonant cavities as illustrated inFIG. 16. Alternatively, the on-chip IR source may be a broadband emittersuch as an LED or ASE source rather than a laser operating with a narrowspectral linewidth.

The sensing region may consist of an extended passive waveguide, or itmay take the form of a ring or other high-Q resonator (or coupled pairsof such resonators) that substantially extend the effective path lengthfor sensing.

The on-chip detector may be an ICD or QCD formed on the same III-V chipfrom the same epitaxial structure as the laser, or it may be formed froma different III-V, II-VI, or IV-VI active detector material bonded tothe same silicon platform as the laser, or it may be an in-plane siliconbolometer processed as part of a silicon PIC. In the case of an ICD orQCD detector, the photocurrent may be collected at zero bias, at areverse bias, or at a forward bias below the lasing threshold. Thelatter may be advantageous, for example, to minimize the loss induced bya detector integrated into the laser cavity as illustrated in FIG. 6.The absorber region of the detector may be placed within a resonantcavity for operation as a resonant cavity infrared detector byprocessing DBR mirrors at both ends of the absorber region.

By combining these options for the MWIR optical source, the sensingregion, and the detector, the spectral dependence of the absorption bythe sample gas may be determined by tuning the resonance wavelength ofthe source, the sensing region if it incorporates a resonant cavity, orthe detector. If more than one of these operates in a narrow spectralband, the resonance wavelengths must be matched by careful design andcalibration, independent temperature tuning of the different regions, orsome other means. Spectral information may also be obtained by combiningmultiple sensors on the same chip, with each operating at a differentwavelength.

Many of the embodiments disclosed above apply equally to PICs integratedon either a III-V or silicon substrate, while others are onlyadvantageous when applied to III-V PICs.

Some aspects of the invention may be advantageous even if an entirechemical sensing system is not integrated on the same III-V or siliconchip. For example, one or more highly stable laser sources and passivesensing waveguides in accordance with the invention may be combined on aIII-V or silicon chip, in conjunction with coupling into one or moredetectors that reside off the chip. Or similarly, one or more off-chipoptical sources may be used in conjunction with one or more passivewaveguide sensing areas and one or more infrared detectors residing onthe chip.

While the descriptions of the invention as applied to MWIR and LWIR PICshave assumed laser sources based on either type-II GaSb-based ICLstructures or InP-based QCL structures, the invention applies equally toother cascade laser structures. These include type-I ICLs that maysimilarly function as ICDs when operated at zero bias, ICLs grown onInAs substrates, and QCLs grown on GaAs, InAs, GaSb, GaN, or siliconsubstrates. See, e.g., L. Shterengas et al., “Type-I Quantum WellCascade Diode Lasers Emitting Near 3 μm,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 103, 121108(2013).

The in-plane waveguides in which the optical signals propagate may beformed entirely within the III-V semiconductor from which the activedetector layers are formed, or by depositing or bonding to some othermaterial to form the core and/or clad for a waveguide. For example,chalcogenide materials may be deposited and patterned to form waveguideswithin a III-V or silicon PIC.

Advantages and New Features

A III-V or Si PIC designed for chemical sensing that is based on any ofthe embodiments described in this invention will be suitable for massproduction of hundreds of chemical sensors on the same chip. Theindividual sensors can then be singulated to form the basis for apackage that is both extremely compact and inexpensive.

A primary advantage of most of the disclosed embodiments is the highstability of the laser source or multiple laser sources used therein,which is accomplished by isolating the laser(s) to the maximum degreepossible from any interactions with optical elements external to thelaser cavity or with other optical elements in a PIC. Rather thancoupling a substantial fraction of the laser power out of the cavity orelsewhere on the chip at some point during each pass through the cavity,the cavity is formed by two HR mirrors that are independent of the lightextraction so that only a small, adjustable fraction of the power isextracted during each pass through the cavity via evanescent coupling toa passive waveguide. While the maximum output power and power conversionefficiency may in some cases be reduced somewhat, the threshold currentand threshold drive power are minimized by the substantial reduction ofloss at the output mirror, as well as by the potential for reducing thecavity length (e.g., to <<1 mm) if the mirror loss can be minimized. Thelaser's increased stability and reduced drive power may be exploited inconfigurations that emit the beam from the chip for use in an externalsystem, or as an optical source component of a PIC.

The invention also provides a framework for constructing fullyintegrated photonic integrated circuits, and especially for creatingIII-V PICs on the native substrates of interband and quantum cascadelaser structures. A III-V PIC designed in accordance with the inventionwill be much simpler and less expensive to process with high yield thana Si-based PIC that integrates multiple III-V active components. Thenumerous optical elements that may be incorporated into a single III-VPIC include lasers, detectors, passive waveguides, sensing waveguidesthat evanescently couple to an ambient sample gas, and arrayed waveguidegratings (AWGs) for spectral beam combining and separating.

The present invention can be utilized for any one or more of theseconfigurations. For example, the invention may be used to construct anultra-compact chemical sensing system that combines one or more ICL orQCL sources, one or more ICDs or QCDs, passive sensing waveguides, andpassive connecting waveguides, all on the same III-V chip. In someembodiments, the invention can provide a chemical sensing system basedon dual-comb spectroscopy that employs two highly stable ICL frequencycombs integrated on the same chip with a passive sensing waveguide andICD. PICs incorporating various ICL/ICD and QCL/QCD designs can provideon-chip chemical sensors designed for highly stable room-temperature cwoperation at wavelengths from <2.5 μm to >11 μm. In fact, it should bepossible to extend this range to longer wavelengths, since a QCLemitting at a given wavelength may be expected to operate to a somewhathigher temperature when both ends of the laser cavity are defined by HRmirrors, as in many embodiments of the invention, than for aconventional design having an HR mirror at only one end of the cavity.

Although the present disclosure describes and illustrates variousspecific embodiments, aspects, and features, one skilled in the artwould readily appreciate that the invention described herein is notlimited to only the described embodiments, aspects, and features butalso contemplates any and all modifications and alternative embodimentsthat are within the spirit and scope of the underlying inventiondescribed and claimed herein. The present application contemplates anyand all modifications within the spirit and scope of the underlyinginvention described and claimed herein, and all such modifications andalternative embodiments are deemed to be within the scope and spirit ofthe present disclosure.

What is claimed is:
 1. A chemical sensor, comprising: a semiconductorlaser with highly stable output intensity and spectral characteristics,the semiconductor laser comprising a laser cavity having a first end,the first end comprising a first facet coated with a first dielectricspacer and a first highly reflective metal or having a first distributedBragg reflector (DBR) formed therein, the laser cavity further having asecond end opposite the first end, the second end comprising a secondfacet either coated with a second dielectric spacer and a second highlyreflective metal or having a second DBR formed therein, the first andsecond highly reflective metals or DBRs on the first and second endspreventing light from being passed from the ends of the laser cavity andbeing fed back into the laser cavity following interactions withexternal optical elements; the laser cavity further comprising an activegain waveguide and a passive sensing waveguide section having apredetermined length; wherein a top and/or a side surface of the passivesensing waveguide is exposed to an ambient sample gas or liquid; whereina wavelength of the passed light is tuned by variation of the operatingtemperature, current flowing through the active gain waveguide, or othermeans; and wherein the presence of a specified chemical species in theambient sample gas is detected by monitoring a compliance voltage of thesemiconductor laser.
 2. The chemical sensor of claim 1, wherein thelaser is an interband cascade laser (ICL), the active narrow-ridgewaveguide being formed from an ICL wafer material that includes: ann⁺-GaSb substrate; an n-InAs/Al Sb superlattice bottom clad on an uppersurface of the substrate; a bottom GaSb separate confinement layer (SCL)on an upper surface of the bottom clad; at least one active gain stageon an upper surface of the bottom GaSb SCL; an n-InAs/AlSb superlatticetop clad on an upper surface of the active gain stage; and an n⁺-InAs orn⁺-InAsSb top contact layer on an upper surface of the top clad; theactive narrow-ridge waveguide further including sidewalls of the narrowridge etched to a depth below the at least one active stage of the firstICL wafer and further including a dielectric layer deposited on thesidewalls of the ridge and a metallization layer deposited on the uppersurface of the ridge to provide a top electrical contact; wherein then⁺-InAs or n⁺-InAsSb top contact layer, the n-InAs/AlSb superlattice topclad layer, and the active gain stages of a second ICL wafer materialadjacent to the active waveguide are etched away to form the passivesensing waveguide, with the etch stopping near the top of the bottomGaSb SCL so as to leave an n⁺-GaSb substrate, an n-InAs/AlSbsuperlattice bottom clad, and some or all of the bottom GaSb separateconfinement layer; wherein the passive sensing waveguide furthercomprises a ridge formed by etching the sidewalls of the passivewaveguide to a depth stopping near the top of the n-InAs/AlSbsuperlattice bottom clad or near the bottom of the bottom GaSb SCL; 3.The chemical sensor according to claim 1, wherein the laser is a quantumcascade laser (QCL) whose active narrow-ridge waveguide is processedfrom a QCL wafer.
 4. The chemical sensor according to claim 3, whereinthe passive sensing waveguide is formed using the same processing, ridgewidth, and etch depth(s) that are used to form the active narrow-ridgewaveguide of the laser, but without any dielectric coating of the ridgesidewalls or metal deposited on top.
 5. The chemical sensor according toclaim 4, wherein the passive waveguide is ion bombarded to reduceoptical loss in the passive waveguide.